Geological researches in China, Mongolia, and Japan : during the years 1862-1865

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202

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

CHINA, MONGOLIA/AND JAPAN,

DURING THE YEARS 1862 TO 1866.

BY

RAPHAEL PUMPELLY.

WASHINGTON CITY:
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

OCTOBER, 1866.

NEW YORK: B. WBSTERMANN & CO.
/

.. CORNELL

SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLIIDGE.

202 ■-

GEOLOGICAL EESEARCHES

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND. JAPAN,

DUEING THE YEAES 1862 TO 1865.

BY

RAPHAEL PUMPELLY.

[accepted foe publication, jandaey, 1866. J

This memoir, having been approved by the National Academy of Sciences, has
been accepted for publication by the Smithsonian Institution.

Joseph Heney,

Secretary S. I.

COLLINS, PRISTEK,
PHILADELrniA.

PREFACE.

The material for the following pages was collected since 1860, Leaving the
Eastern States in that year, and crossing the plains to Arizona, I remained there
nearly a year in charge of silver mines. Being forced by the Indian troubles to
abandon that territory, I entered Mexico, and after a midsummer journey over the
deserts of the Pacific coast, between Sonora and California, reached the latter State.

Leaving California with one companion. Prof. William P. Blake, both of us
engaged by the Japanese Government to explore the island of Yesso, we sailed for
Japan via the Sandwich islands. The engagement with the Japanese Government
lasted but little more than a year, when it was suddenly brought to an end by the
fierce, political troubles of that time. It was during hasty journeys of reconnoissance
that the notes relating to Yesso were jotted down, and at a time when I hoped to
be able to make a much more thorough study of the geology of Japan.

It was with true regret that I left the service of a government whose courtesy
had made a lasting impression on my memory, and with whose struggles for progress
as against exclusiveness I deeply sympathized.

Crossing to China, after a short visit to Nagasaki, I ascended the Yangtse Kiang
into Central Hunan, and to the frontier of Sz'chuen, a great part of the journey
being made in a small Chinese boat, and occupying four months of the spring and
summer of 1863.

The autumn and winter of 1863 and spring of 1864 were spent in examining the
Coal fields west of Peking, for the Chinese Government, and in journeys in Northern
China and Southern Mongolia.

I spent the summer of 1864 at Nagasaki.

In the winter of 1864 and 1865, in company with Mr. T. Walsh, of Japan, and
Mr. F. R. St. John, Secretary of the British Legation at Peking, I crossed into
Siberia, and thence, alone, travelled overland to St. Petersburg and Paris.

Thus the journeys which furnished the data for the following pages were as fol-
lows : —

I. In 1862 over the ground indicated in the sketch map of southern Yesso, PI.
No. 8, and excursions in the neighborhood of Yokohama.

II. In 1863 excursions in the vicinity of Nagasaki; a journey up the Yangtse
Kiang to the boundary between Hupeh and Sz'chuen, and into southern Hunan ;
and excursions from Peking into the mountains of northwestern Chihli.

Ill In 1864 a journey in southern Mongolia, along the edge of the plateau to

( iii )

iy. PREFACE.

near the great N. E. bend of the Hwang Ho, returning to Peking by a route south
of the plateau and within the Great Wall; and finally, part of the journey homeward,
from China across the plateau and the Gobi desert to Siberia.

With the exception of the itinerary in Yesso, which was made while in the ser-
vice of the Japanese Government, and the description of the coal basin west of
Peking, which was examined at the request of the Chinese Government, all the
material was collected on journeys made at my expense.

Ignorance of the Chinese and Mongolian languages, the difficulty of making
observations in western China, owing to the hostility of the people at the time, the
intense cold of the winter journey across the plateau into Siberia, and the fact that
the enterprise was a private one, will, it is hoped, serve as excuses for asking the
indulgence of the reader in view of the incompleteness of the work.

I have attempted throughout to keep the generalizations separate from the record
of observations and other data on which- they rest.

I have followed, generally, the orthography of Dr. S. W. Williams for Chinese
proper names, and that of Klaproth for Mongolian names, where these could be
found on his great map of Central Asia, but in many instances they are written from
the pronunciation of the Tartar guides. In giving Japanese and Aino names I have
followed very closely the Japanese spelling.

For assistance in preparing the present work I am indebted to Dr. J. S. Newberry
for undertaking the description of the fossil plants, and to Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards
for the examination. of infusorial earths, etc., under the microscope, and to Prof. G,
J. Brush and Mr. James A. Macdonald for analyses of coals.

A considerable amount of valuable material consisting raainly of Paleozoic, Ter-
tiary, and Post-tertiary shells, and of rocks, has not yet been worked up.

I would return thanks to Prof J. D. Whitney both for many valuable hints, and
for the use of his excellent library.

I am deeply indebted to Dr. W. Lockhart, Mr. C. Murray, and Dr. S. W.
Williams, and Rev. Mr. Edkins, of Peking, for valuable assistance in making re-
searches in Chinese geographical literature.

The diagrams in the text, and the plates, I. to VIII., at the» end, are executed in
copper relief engraving by Messrs. E. R. Jewett & Co. of BuflFalo ; plate IX. is cut
in wood by Mr. C. Murry, of New York.

R. P.

New York, Aug, 1, 1866.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

On the General Outlines of Eastern Asia ...... 1

CHAPTER II.
Geological Observations in the Basin op the Yangtse Kiang . , , . 4

CHAPTER III.
Observations in the Province op Chihli . ..... .10

CHAPTER ly.

Structure op the Southern Edge op the Great Table-Land, and op Northern Shansi
and Chihli . . . . . . , . . , ' 25

CHAPTER V.

The Delta-Plain and the Historical Changes in the Course op the Yellow River . 46

CHAPTER VI.

On the General Geology op China Proper ; A Generalization Based on Observa-
tions, and on the Mineral Productions, and the Configuration op the Surface . 61

CHAPTER VII.

The Sinian System op Elevation . . . . . ... .67

CHAPTER VIII.

Geological Sketch op the Routb>prom the Great Wall to the Siberian Frontier . • 70

CHlPTER IX.

Geological Itineraries op Journeys on the Island op Yesso in Northern Japan . 79

CHAPTER X.

Mineral Productions op China . . . . . . . 109

APPENDIX.

Appendix No. 1. — Description of Fossil Plants from the Chinese Coal-Bearing Rocks. By

J. S. Newberry, M. D. . . . . . • . . .119

Appendix No. 2. — Analyses of Chinese and Japanese Coals. By James A. Mac-

donald, M. A. ......... 123

Appendix No. 3. — Letter from Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards on the Results of an Examina-
tion under the Microscope of some Japanese Infusorial Earths, and other Deposits o£
China and Mongolia . . . . • . . . .126

LIST OF DIAGRAMS.

Figure

Figures

Figures

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figures

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

1. Section near Chaitang .....
2 and 3. Illustrating the manner of working the Tatsau mine
4 and 5. Sections at Chingshui
6. Section near Fangshan (Hien)

Section near Siuenhwa (Fu)

Section near Kalgan

Section near Hakodade .

Japanese lead furnace .

Section at Cape Wosatzube

Sulphur furnace on Mt. Esan

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.

12.

13 and 14 Illustrating the Japanese method of washing auriferous deposits

15. Concentrating trough of the Japanese miners ....

16. Section on Mt. Iwaounobori .....
IT. Illustrating progressive alteration of rock .under solfatara-action

18. Lava flow near Kumaishi ......

FAOE

14
16
11
20
23
23
80
81
85
8t
92
92
95
96
102

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate 1. Section along the Tangtse Kiang, from the Pacific Ocean to Pingshan (Hien), in Westeri?

Sz'chuen.
Plate 2. Route map of the Yang Ho District.

Plate 3. Geological sections in Northern Chihli and Southern Mongolia.
Plates 4 and 5. Maps representing the historical changes in the course of the Yellow River or

Hwang Ho.
Plate 6. Hypothetical map of the geological structure of China.
Plate T. Map of the Sinian (N. E., S. W.) system of elevation of Eastern Asia. Section across the

table-land of Central Asia from the Plain of Peking to near Kiachta, in Eastern Siberia.
Plate 8. Geological route-sketch. Southern Yesso, with sections.
Plate 9. Fossil plants from the Chinese coal-bearing rocks.

(vii)

GEOLOGICAL EESEAECHES

IN

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

CPIAPTEE I.
ON THE GENERAL OUTLINES OP EASTERN ASIA.

If we examine a Mercator Chart of Eastern Asia, we are instantly struck with
the parallelism of many of its most important features. A straight line {A, B, PI.
VII) drawn in the longer axis of the Gulf of Pechele, trending nearly northeast
(N. 47° E.), if prolonged in both directions, will be found to coincide with the
entire middle course of the Yangts^, between Sz'chuen and Yunnan, with the
longer axis of the great delta-plain between the highlands of Shantung and western
Chihli, with the mouth and lower course of the Liau river, with the vaUey of the
lower Amur, and finally crossing the Sea of Ochotsk, it is parallel to, and nearly
coincides with, the direction of the Gulf of Penjinsk,

Using this line as a standard of reference, we find that the long straight western
shores of the two greatest indentations, the Sea of Ochotsk and the Bay of Bengal,
are nearly in a line with each other and parallel to our standard. The same may
be said of a line connecting the islands of Formosa, Kiusiu, Nippon and the Kuriles.
The trend of the southeastern coast of China, the upper course of the Yellow river,
the Lake Baikal, and the courses of many of the principal rivers of Eastern Siberia;
that of Kamtschatka and the coast of Manchuria are aU separate instances confirm-
ing this rule.

We are naturally led to look for the cause of this in a similar uniformity in the
trend of the mountain ranges, and, indeed, although the directions of these are
difiicxdt of determination, I hope to be able to show that such a parallelism really
exists. The long, submerged chain represented by the Kurile and Japanese islands
is an unmistakable instance, while, in the northern part of the continent, the Stanovoi
and Yablonoi ranges, and all the ridges of Trans-Baikal, are examples of mountains
nearly or quite parallel to our standard, and inclosing extensive longitudinal valleys.
The same may be said of the Byrranga mountains, and of almost all the ridges east
of the Lena river. Indeed, while the trends of nearly all the mountains of North-
eastern Asia lie between N. N. E. and E. N. E., the majority of them approach very
nearly the N. E. S. W. direction.

Having seen that this regularity exists in the ranges of the better explored parts

1 April, 1866. f 1 )

2 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

of Eastern Asia, let us look for it in China also, where we have to rely on a more
limited number of data, partly geological and partly topographical in their character.

Where the Yangtse river crosses the Sz'chuen-Hupeh frontier, it cuts through a
broad mountain range whose principal axis crosses the river in long. 111° 15', near
Ichang (fu). Here the axial granite rises 600 to 1000 feet above the river, and
is flanked on both sides by an immense thickness of limestone and coal-bearing
rocks, whose strata have here a mean trend to N. E. If, through this point, we
draw a line ( C, D, PI. VII) having a similar trend, its prolongation will indicate
the watershed between the Hwai river and the Han river, the watershed of Shan-
tung, and following the line of islands that stretch across the entrance to the Gulf
of Pechele, it wiU coincide with the range of mountains, which, beginning with the
promontory of Liautung, divides the waters first of the Liau river and Yaluh river,
and afterwards, of the Sungari river and Usuri river. If we prolong the line from
the Yangtse to the S. "VV., it will nearly coincide with the mountains that part the
rivers of Kweichau from those of Hunan.

AU. these ridges I take to be members of a continuous line of elevation, extending
from Southern China to the Amur .river, and which, from its influence on the
character of the country, may be called the central anticlinal axis of China.

A line drawn from near Canton and passing through the Chusan archipelago,
wUl represent the mean trend of the coast range, and, if prolonged to the N. E., it
v/ill cut the Corean peninsula near its southern end, in what appears to be its most
mou.ntainous point.^ In the other direction, the island of Hainan, from its N. E.
S..W. trend and lofty mountains, would seem to be a member of the same range.

In Northwestern China, a great range crosses the Yellow river, in its course
between Shansi and Shensi, and trending N. E. by E., connects the mountain
knot of Northwestern Sz'chuen Avith that of the Ourang daban north of the
Tushikau gate of the Great WaU. Nearly parallel to this is another range which,
beginning west of Singan (fu), crosses the Yellow river, forming the Lungmun
gorge, and traversing, obliquely, the centre of Shansi, gradually approaches the
other range in northern Chihli.

These are the three principal axes, and they seem to be made up of parallel
anticlinal ridges. Minor parallel axes seem, to occupy the country between these
larger ranges.

If we examine the maps of the provinces that border on the eastern edge of the
Tibetan highland, we find a system of ranges, which, branching off from the
Kwenlun and following, at first, a southeasterly course, gradually merge into a N.
S. trend. The easternmost of these, occupying western Sz'chuen, divide the
principal northern tributaries of the Yangtse. Those farther west form the narrow
watersheds between the upper courses of the Yangtse, the Cambodia and the
Salween, and, in their southern prolongation, they form the Malayan peninsula and
probably that occupied by Annam and Siam. The N. S. trend seems to be con-
fined exclusively to the extreme west of China.

' According to tlie great map of Kanghi this peninsula seems to have its principal mountains in
the south, forming a N. E. S. W. ridge.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. g

On the other hand the E. W. system of trends, which is so important in Central
Asia, exercises an influence which is apparent much farther eastward.^

A range of mountains, said to have several snow-covered peaks, originating in
Southern Kansuh, runs due east, separating the waters that enter the Yellow river
through the "Wei and the Loh, from those that flow to the Yangtse through the
Kialing and the Han, and finally disappears in western Honan. Another range,
with a mean E. by S. trend, is given by Klaproth as forming the boundary between
Sz'chuenon the south and Shensi and Kansuh on the north.

It is not improbable, that the country included between these two ranges in Shensi
and Kansuh, is an elevated table-land. The courses of the Han and Kialing rivers
and the communication between their waters, as indicated by Chinese authorities,
seem to favor this idea.

In the south, the Nanling mountains, a range said to have peaks that reach above
the snow-line, rise in Yunnan, and, branching, form, in the northern member, the
boundary between Kwangsi and Kweichau, while the southern member trends
ofi" into Kwangsi. The influence of the northern branch of the Nanling, is apparent
as far as Fuhkien, in the probably comparatively low watershed north of Kwangtung.
The higher portion of this range seems to be along the southern boundary of
Kweichau, where it has lofty peaks and fertile elevated table-lands,^ which, from
difficulty of access, have been for ages the home of the aboriginal Miautsz, a race
unconquered by the surrounding civilization. The two passes that cross this range
in Hunan and Kiangsi, where it is called the Moiling, cannot be very high, as the
portage between the head of boat navigation on the two flanks is only a few miles.
According to Biot,' the members of Lord Amherst's embassy give the' height of the
Kiangsi pass as 3000 feet. The great map of Kanghi gives an uninterrupted water
communication between the headwaters of the Siang river of llunan and those of
a tributary of the Si river, that flows through the city of Kweilin.

I have here attempted to trace only those ridges which seem to be the most
important, as exhibiting the general conflguration of China. To the E. W. ranges
is due the fact, that the mean courses of the great rivers of the empire lie east and
Avest. But the total length . of each river is made up of N. E. reaches, where it
flows through broad and fertile longitudinal valleys, and of southeasterly or southerly
reaches in which it traverses, by deep and narrow gorges, the N. E. S. W. ridges.

* All that is known of these two systems, the N. S. and the E. W. is derived from the Jesuit
maps and from Chinese writers,
a Chinese Repository, I. 40.
= Recherches sur la hauteur, etc., Journ. Asiat., 1840.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

CHAPTER II.

GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN TH.E BASIN OF THE

YANGTSE KIANG.

A GLANCE at the section (PI. 1) across Central China wiU. show that the Devo-
nian limestone and Chinese Coal measures seem to predominate, at least at the sur-
face, over aU 'else. There is only one point in the whole length of the section,
where rocks older than the great limestone deposit rise to th-e surface, so that if the
former exist, they are buried deep below the level of the sea. I shall give, in a
subsequent chapter, reasons for believing that, at least in the valley of the Yangtse,
there are also no representatives of the Mesozoic formations of later date than the
Chinese Coal measures, and few, if any, of the Cenozoic.

Where the Yangtse breaks through the ridges of the central .anticlinal axis of
elevation, in Eastern Sz'chuen and Western Hupeh, a section, nearly eighty miles
long, is exposed in the succession of deep gorges through which the river passes
this barrier. Here the Dcivonian limestone is seen to rest almost immediately on
the granite, a comparatively small development of metamprphic schists intervening.

This seems to be the only point between Western Sz'chuen and the Pacific, where
the Yangtse has exposed these lower rocks, and even here they occur during only
about eight mUes of the river's course, and with a maximum height of only a few
hundred feet above the river. To their occurrence are due the rapids that render
the navigation of this part of the " Great River" so dangerous.

The granite immediately above the first rapids consists of a triclinic feldspar and
orthoclase, the former predominating, a brilliant black mica and quartz with small
crystals of sphene scattered through the mass. Above Shantowpien the granite
becomes very fine-grained, and still further up the river it is succeeded by syenitic
granite, composed of white triclinic feldspar, quartz, large laminae of brown mica,
and crystals of hornblende, with minute octahedrons of magnetic iron.

On its eastern and western declivities the granite supports the metamorphic strata.
Those to the eastward, which could not be closely examined, seemed to be gneiss
trending E. W. and dipping about 30° to S. West of the granite the strata con-
sist, where examined, of hornblendic schist and chloritic schist, the former often
containing lenticular masses and cross veins of quartz, feldspar, and chlorite. KoUed
fragments of diorite, probably of metamorphic origin, indicate the presence of this
usual companion of these rocks. Near their contact with the granite these strata
trend N. N. E., dipping about 85° to E. S. E., while further up the river their trend
changes to E. N. E., and the dip to N. N. W.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 5

Flanking this granite core on both sides and covering it, is the great Devonian
limestone floor of the Chinese Coal measures. On the eastern flank of the granitic
axis the limestone strata trend, almost uniformly, N. E. S. W., varying in dip from
25° to 8° towards the S. E. as we recede from the granite. On the western flank
the strike is less regular, changing from nearly N. S., at the contact with the meta-
morphic schists, to N. E. S. W. in the upper part of the limestone. In the imme-
diate neighborhood of the river, over an area of forty or fifty square miles, the
limestone has disappeared, but in the distance, on both sides of the Yangtse, its
yellow cliffs are seen towerijag to a height of more than 2,000 feet above the water.

I laiow of no limestone deposit that can rival this in thickness. Taking the
length of the cross section from its contact with the younger conglomerates, near
Ichang, to where it rests on the metamorphic schists, to be seven and one-half
geographic miles, and the mean dip at 15°, viz., 10° for the eastern half and 20°
for the western, we obtain the enormous thickness of 11,600 feet, more than two
statute miles. I observed no faults in this gorge, and the great thickness observed
in this same limestone in Northern China, leads me to think that the above estimate
cannot be far from the truth.

West of this ridge of limestone is another of about the same size, the interven-
ing space being occupied by the Coal measures.

Here, within a distance of eighty miles, are the principal rapids, whUe the river
traverses the limestone through a series of five gorges unsurpassed in the grandeur
of their scenery. The Yangtse, which, a few miles below the mouth of the Ichang
gorge, has a width of 960 yards, is in this narrowed to 250, and in the Fungsiang
gorge to 150 yards.^ In these narrow passages, whose walls are from 900 to 1200
feet high, cliffs of bare rock, often vertical or overhanging, alternate with steep
declivities clothed in green from the water to the summit, and with deep, inaccessi-
ble dells filled with the rich growth of a semi-tropical vegetation. Streams flowing
from the mouths of caverns high above the river, cool the air in their descent, while
the huge clusters of stalactite which they have formed — the work of ages — show
well the chemical power of the smallest drop, side by side with the mechanical force
of the rolling river. Through these gloomy chasms the skilful boatmen drag the
heavy junks, now " tracking" them from paths and steps hewn in the solid rock,
now puUing them by rusty and time-worn chains clamped along the vertical walls.

The depth of the water must be very great,^ and the difference between high
and low water is said to be as much as eighty feet in the Ichang gorge.

The limestone is generally of a bluish-gray color and compact texture, though
subordinate to this variety, layers occur having every shade of color and grain.
A gray, compact variety, with frequent large crystals of calcite is not uncom-
mon; and a very compact, almost black kind is quarried in the Ichang gorge.
Indeed gray, pink, red, black, and blue varieties of this same limestone, with com-
pact, porphyritic and crystalline textures, furnish in almost every province of China

* Blackiston. Five months on the Upper Yangtse.

" Blackiston's party found no bottom with eighteen fathoms.

6 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

useful and choice marbles. Every degree of tliiclmess occurs in the layers from
laminae only one-quarter inch thick to beds of many feet.

Nodules and thin layers of black chert occur throughout the limestone, but in
the lower half they are remarkably frequent, becoming more common as we ap-
proach the oldest beds, in which, indeed, the calcareous rock is often entirely
excluded by massive layers of quartzite. At the eastern entrance to the Lucan
gorge, where the limestone rests on the older rocks, the lowest beds of the former,
containing lenticular masses and thin laye3;p of chert, are soon succeeded by a bed
40 to 50 feet thick, of massive quartzite.

Wherever I have had occasion to examine this limestone in place, it has invaria-
bly appeared to be entirely without fossils, but this has been only in the main
ridges, where metamorphic action has probably played a more important part than
in the minor ridges that rise between these lines of greater elevation, and it seems
to me that there can be little doubt that the fossil Brochiopoda that occur in many
provinces belong to this formation.

Just before entering the eastern mouth of the Lucan gorge, a bed of fine-grained,
micaceous, gray sandstone is observable, intervening between the metamorphic
schists and the limestone. The trend of this intervening bed is JST. N. W. and the
dip 25° to 30° to W. S. W,, the metamorphic schists striking to E. N. E. and
dipping to N. N. W., while the trend of the overlying limestone strata, at the nearest
point observed, was about N. by W. and the inclination about 30° to W. by S.

At the western end of the Mitan gorge we enter the coal field of Kwei. Here
the limestone disappears under strata, apparently conformable with it, of a fine-
grained micaceous sandstone, which, below Kwei, is succeeded by a fine-grained,
gray, calcareous sandstone. The trend of the beds which, near the gorge, was
N. N. E. with a dip of about 40° to W. N. W., changes here to N. with a dip to
E., and further up, opposite Kwei, it is N. by W. with an inclination of 70° to E.
by N. Here is the beginning of a series of those angular plications so common to
Coal measures in all countries. Small beds of limestone and red argillite alternate
with the sandstones until, about two miles above Kwei, the first coal seams crop
out, and with the appearance of these, the trend changes to N. W. by W., more
than 90° from its normal direction of N. E. S. W.

The seams of coal are of an inferior friable anthracite. Those I visited abOve
Kwei were highly inclined between sandstone walls, and contained, according to
the Chinamen, only six to eight inches of fuel. Capt. Blackiston, who took speci-
mens of these rocks and noticed, with much accuracy, the general features of this
region, remarks that the rocks of the coal regions of Sz'chuen, wherever he saw
them, presented the same appearance as those of the Kwei field.^ It would seem
probable that in Sz'chuen, which seems to be occupied by an immense coal basin,
the Coal measures exist M'ith a much greater thickness than in the Kwei field,
where only the lower members seem to have been preserved. Deposits of iron ore
occur in intimate connection with coal and limestone in Sz'chuen,^ and, as we shall

* Five Months on the Upper Yangtse. a jjjj^_

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 7

see later, it is probable that the extensive salt deposits of that province are mem-
bers of the same formation.

Near the city of Icliang, at the eastern mouth of the gorge, the limestone strata,
trending here N. E. and dipping about 8° to S. E., are covered by apparently
conformable beds of fine-grained, gray sandstone, v^^hich, toward the top, soon
merges into a coarse conglomerate. The change is very marked, the upper portion
of the sandstone containing rounded fragments of chert near the contact, and the
lower part of the conglomerate having lenticular deposits of the sandstone. This
transition appears to mark some important change that took place during the form-
ing of these deposits, and the fact that, in transverse section, they border the river
for twelve miles and have a great thickness, would seem to indicg,te that this change
was not confined to the immediate neighborhood.

This conglomerate is followed by a red sandstone, which above Itu dips easterly,
and below that place westerly. From here eastward the country on both sides of
the river is flat, the rocks being covered for the most part by alluvial deposits ;
but in the neighborhood of Yangchi limestone crops out in different places, with a
very irregular strike between N. and W., and a corresponding dip to between N.
and E. From this point to Hankau, the country, if we except a few isolated hills,
is one almost unbroken plain, the ancient bed of the Tungting lake, in which the
older rocks are covered by the lake deposits.

At the town of Shishan (Hien) an isolated hill rises from the plain, its almost
vertical strata trending about N. 65° E., and consisting of sandstone, arenaceous
shale resembling a similar rock of the Kwei coal field, and a shaly quartzose
conglomerate. The outcroppings of the older rocks that appear, at intervals,
between the outlet of the Tungting lake and Hankau are sandstones and argillites,
which, from their general character and the fact that in one place their trend is
toward a locality a few miles distant where coal is worked, would seem to belong
to the Coal measures. The hills immediately above Hankau are of clay slates and
argillaceous sandstone, and through the cities of Wuchang and Hanyang, stretches
a ridge of sandstone altered to an almost compact quartzite.

The journey from Hankau to the sea was made in a steamer, stopping only at
Kiukiang and Chinkiang, making the knowledge concerning this part of the river
very imperfect. The only sources of information were constant observations, through
a good glass, of the frequent natural sections made by the river, and the scanty
remarks of a few travellers connected with Lord Amherst's embassy.

Below Sankiangkau beds of sandstone and conglomerate, trending S. W. and
dipping 40° — 45° to S. E., are exposed, and a few miles further down the river
the city of Hwangchau fu is built on a low ridge of ferruginous sandstone, of which
the raised beds strike due N., dipping about 30° W. About twenty miles S. E.
from this city, hills of limestone, 800 to 900 feet high, form the southern bank of
the river, the irregular trend of their strata varying from W. to S. W., and the
dip, of about 40°, from S. to S. E. Twenty-five miles beloAv this point the river
breaks through another ridge of limestone, the strata of which have a strike to
S. E. by S. and incline about 40° to S. W. by W.

The rocks on the outlet to the Poyang lake have all the appearance of limestone.

8 GEOLOGICAL ll'E SEARCHES IN

and this is the case with all the exposed sections from the outlet to the Siauku shan
or Little Orphan rock. Below Tungliu coarse red sandstone is exposed, its upturned
edges, which are here capped with the younger terrace deposits, trending to N. E.
with a dip of 15° to N. W. At Nanking there are extensive quarries of limestone,
while directly opposite the city, on the left; bank of the Yangtse, strata of red sand-
stone trend W. S. W., dipping about 40° to E. S. E. Coal mines are worked in
the immediate Neighborhood of this city, especially on its eastern side. Soon after
leaving the hills of Nanking the river enters the great delta plain through which it
winds to the sea.

In a rSsumS I shall try, by means of a combination of the data given above, with
information derived chiefly from native sources, to throw more light on the structure
of this region.'

TERRACES OP THE YANGTSE VALLEY.

At frequently recurring points along both the Upper and Lower Yangtse, we
meet with deposits of gravel and clay, forming bluffs at the water's edge, or fringing
the hills that form the walls of the valley. They are generally stratified in
horizontal beds. Differing in height and in the character of their ingredients, there
seems also to be a diversity of age. The extensive plain, once occupied by the
Tungting lake, before it was reduced to its present size, is fringed by these terraces ;
for they recur constantly from Hankau to Yochau on the right bank of the river,
and from this city along the eastern border of the lake, and form a belt which
extends many miles to the south, and occupies nearly all the space along the south-
ern edge of the lake, between the Siang and Yuen rivers. Again, where the river
enters the lake plain, the tongue of land included by the river bend between Pah-
yang and Tung'sz, consists of the same deposit.

At the last named locality the deposit is made up of rounded pebbles of quartz
and limestone, cemented with a stiff clay, and this is its general character at the
junction of the Siang river with the lake and along the eastern shore. But the
most general form of occurrence is that of a stiff blue clay, with irregular white
spots. Near Tung'sz the terraces appear to be from seventy to ninety feet high,
but below the outlet of the lake they vary from thirty to sixty feet. Blackiston
mentions similar terraces as occurring at various points along the Yangtse in
Sz'chuen.

The village of Tsingtan, at the eastern end of the Mitan gorge in Western Hupeh,
is built on a terrace of conglomerate-breccia formed of fragments of limestone,
chert, gneiss, and other metamorphic rocks, in form'of rubble and rounded and
angTilar fragments of all sizes, the whole firmly cemented by a calcareous tufa.
This formation originally filled the valley from side to side, and its bluffs rise forty
to fifty feet above high-water mark. In the rapid current that must always have
scoured these narrow portions of the Yangtse valley, nothing but the coarsest
material could resist the onward movement ; and when an increase in the velocity
of the stream took place, only those portions of the deposits were preserved which

CniNA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 9

Were near enough to the limestone to be cemented into a hard mass by the waters
flowing from it.

The bed of the Yangtse must have been cut to about its present depth, when a
diminution of its average fall took place, permitting the formation of these terrace
deposits. Subsequently another change, by increasing the fall, caused the river to
scour out, again, the greater part of the valley. As with the river so with the
Tungting lake ; this large sheet of water, which then occupied all the plain of
liupeh and Hunan, must have been tilled up with the terrace deposit, the remains
of which now form its shores. With the returning increase of fall, the lake was
scoured out by the rivers Yangtse, Han, Siang, and Yuen. Since this erosion, it
would seem probable that the velocity of the current has slightly diminished, as
the material brought down by these rivers has converted nearly nine-tenths of the
former lake into dry land. A large part of this lake-plain is said, by ancient
Chinese writers, to have been an immense marsh where it is now cultivated land.

We have, at present, no observations to show whether the oscillations of Central
China, which are thus recorded in the Yangtse Valley,' were contemporaneous with
the raising of the western edge of the delta-plain ; but whether they were or not,
the cause which was exerted across the whole breadth of China, must be looked for
in a vertical movement, either in the Tibetan highland. or along the eastern coast.

A remarkable instance of the formation of a deposit of fine material, in the
swiftest part of the river, is observable in the first rapids, just above the Ichang
gorge. Granite rocks rising to the surface, near the shore, form an obstruction to
the current, which is here from fifteen to eighteen miles an hour, causing eddies in
their lee, in which a constant precipitation of sand takes place. Banks of quick-
sands are thus formed, their tops almost even with the surface of the river. Their
sides, too steep to remain at rest, are constantly being washed away, and as con-
stantly replaced by the freshly precipitated material. At low water these banks
line the shores, and, during the high water season of 1863, 1 noticed one more than
half a mile long, and twenty-five or thirty feet above the river; the result of some
previous very high freshet.

2 April, 1866.

10 GEOLOGICAL RBSBAKCHES IN

CHAPTEE III.
OBSERVATIONS IN THE PROVINCE OP CHIHLI.

Along the western boundary of the province of Chihli, the great delta-plain is
bounded by the outliers of the northwestern belt of N. E. S. W. ridges. The
foundation on which rest the limestone and volcanic rocks of Northern Chihli,
Shansi, and Shensi, consists of granite and the metamorphic schists; and where
this foundation forms the northwestern limit of the delta-plain, it forms also the
southeastern edge of the skeleto'n of the great table-land of Central Asia.

We have seen that, in Central China, the granitic and metamorphic rocks that
support the limestone and Coal measures, rise to the level of the river, in, to say
the least, only rare instances, and then as the axial cores of ridges; the great
thickness of the overlying rocks making it highly probable that, from western
Sz'chuen to the Pacific, this foundation lies far below the level of the sea. But if
we cross the mountains from the delta-plain to the highlands of Mongolia, we find
that the surface of the granitic substructure lies everywhere above the sea, and
probably nowhere at a less height than 1000 feet. Were the limestone and
younger rocks removed, the country would present the appearance of a table-land
ribbed with high N. E. S. W. ridges, and very similar to southern Mongolia if we
suppose that divested of its lava beds.

Along the edge of the plain, the limestone floor of the Coal measures rises
abruptly from under the delta-deposit, and forms, so to speak, the eastern facing of
these mountains. At the entrance to the Nankau pass, the strata trend N. 60° E.
and dip about 40° to S. E. Five or six miles farther west, it is followed by granite,
and between these points, strilie and dip are very irregular. From the pass, the
limestone stretches away to N. E. toward Jehol, and to S. W., facing the plain,
toward Shansi.

WhUe the Coal measures probably remain intact under the delta-plain, from the
mountains of Shantung to those of Chihli, they exist in these latter only in scattered
basins, where they have been partially preserved, by folds of the limestone, from
denudation. The most important instances of this kind facing the plain, are the
basins of Wangping (hien) and Fangshan (hien) west of Peking, and of Pingting
(chau) in Shansi.

The basins of Wangping (hien) and Fangshan (hien) lie in the mountains' west
of Peking, where, rising from under the plain, they occupy synclinal folds of the
limestone, and are probably only two arms of a larger basin concealed under the
younger deposits to the eastward. The Wangping basin extends due west more
than thirty miles, with a breadth of about twelve miles. Along a great part of its

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. H

northern edge, a bed of porphyry conglomerate, of great thickness, intervenes
between the limestone and the coal rocks, while the western portion of the basin
is much broken up by porphyries, and the centre is crossed by a high ridge appa-
rently of quartzose conglomerate and sandstones.

Coal seams, varying in thickness and quality, occur in many parts of these
basins, and are worked in the more accessible localities, as, for instance, at Muntakau,
Maanshan, the hiU of Piyiinsz, Lingchi on the Wangping creek and at Chaitang
in the west.

In the following necessarily incomplete table, I have attempted to show the struc-
ture of those parts of these basins that came under my observation : —

H

5 i

be

Coal or anthracite alternating with beds of argillaceous shales, sandstones, J Hsingshun
gray quartzose conglomerate-breccias and compact red and green > and
argillites. ) Tatsau.

Alternating beds of coal, argillaceous shales, and sandstones.

Coal (Futau seam).

Black under-clay.

Micaceous quartzose sandstone.

Quartzose conglomerate.

Yellow argillaceous shales with impressions of plants.

Outcroppings concealed for several hundred feet by terrace loam.

Compact green argillite..

Coarse gray sandstone and conglomerate.

Compact argillite, mottled green and red.

Coarse gray sandstone.

Friable and argillaceous gray sandstone.

Red calcareous clay slate.

Greenish sandstone (with specks of chlorite).

Red calcareous clay slate.

Gray sandstone.

Red calcareous clay slate

Gray sandstone.
)( Green quartzose conglomerate.

Anagenite (quartz, feldspar, and mica sandstone).

Argillaceous shales and compact sandstones alternating with seams of an^
thracite.

Ferruginous sandstone altered to quartzite.

Quartzose conglomerate.

Anthracite.

Micaceous, and black argillaceous shales.

Calcareo-argillaceous shale.

! Anthracite. ) Faugshan

Micaceous, and black argillaceous shale. > at

Calcareo-argillaceous shale. ; Yingwo mine,

r Clay-slates (green, black and red). 1

■\ Greenish sandstone passing into greenish quartzose conglomerate.. \- Niuchauling.

|_ Argillaceous shale. J

f Conglomerate of porphyry, limestone and quartz. | jjun Ho and

( Porphyry conglomerate. J Chaitang.

( ITpper limestone. \ Upper Yangtse

j Black clay slate. >• and Province

( Lower limestone (cherty). V of Chihli.

Muntakau.

Maanshan.

12 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

The porphyry conglomei-ates, No. 2, which, in places along the northern edge of
the basin, have a thickness of not less than 2000 feet, are wanting in the eastern
part. The parts of the series marked No. 3, form the oldest beds, and they
rest immediately on the limestone in their respective localities. Between Nos. 3
and 4 the character and extent of the intervening beds were not observed. The
connection between Nos. 4 and 5 is made on lithological grounds, the same green
sandstone and green quartzose conglomerate occurring above the coal seams of
Muntakau, and low down in the series at Chaitang.

Limestone. — Here, as on the Yangtse, a great development of limestone &rms
the floor of the Coal measures. Although no good opportunity occurred, in this
region, for estimating its thickness, this is undoubtedly several thousand feet. It
is generally divided into two nearly equal parts by a bed of clay slates ; though
independently of this, the upper and lower strata are characterized, the latter by
an abundance of chert, and the former by comparative freedom from that mineral.

The limestone is generally compact and blue, but in places it is white and sac-
charoid ; and black, pink, and dark red varieties occur. The chert is black, and
is abundant in the lower half, occurring in nodules, and in layers varying in thick-
ness from less than one line to over forty feet, beds of this size generally forming
the bottom of the limestone. In the basin of Siuenhwa (fu), near the Great
Wall, the limestone is highly siliceous, but almost alwa'5'S retains a white appear-
ance.

This formation furnishes, here, as in almost every province of the empire, besides
lime, the marble so much used in Chinese ornamental architecture, for bridges,
tombstones, gateways, and the lions that guard the portals of all ofiicial buildings.
The white saccharoid variety is very beautiful, but disintegrates so rapidly that,
even in the dry climate of Peking, inscriptions on exposed monuments two hundred
years old are barely legible.^ The black variety, which is very compact, breaking
with a conchoidal fracture, retains a perfectly fresh surface after centuries of
exposure.

A quarry at the Maanshan has supplied lime for the capital during many centu-
ries ; the continued excavation having widened and deepened the valley, removing
small hills and leaving, over an area of perhaps one square mile, a deposit that
might well perplex an observer, were the cause not stiU at work. Almost every
point in this area seems to have been the site of a lime-kiln, which has left its
cone of concentric layers, consisting of half burnt limestone, chert, fragments of
coal and ashes. As new kilns were built over and between old ones, the result is
a bed, the ingredients of -which have become cemented to a hard concrete, by the
refuse lime. In this deposit, the stream of the valley has cut its channel, in places,
forty to fifty feet deep, Avith vertical walls, without reaching the limestone bottom.

Caves are abundant in this limestone, and many of them are said to be of great
extent. One which I visited, near Fangshan (hien), consists of a series of large

' There is a white variety, used in mouuments near Peking, in which inscriptions of the Kin
dynasty are perfectly fresh, as, for instance, that used in the grand marble arch of Kiyungkwan in
the Nankau pass.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAl'AN. 13

chambers extending nearly in a straight line. The first two of these only were
visible, the entrance to the third having been closed by an imperial order, owing
to a party of visitors having lost their way and perished.

These chambers are connected by passages, so small that they can be entered
only by creeping on hands and knees. Their longest axis is at right angles to
the strike of the strata, and forms a considerable angle with the dip. The floor is
covered with stalagmite, which, in the centre of one chamber, seems to be at least
forty feet thick, and is connected with the roof by immense columns of stalactite.
Like many large caverns in China, this one is sacred to Buddha, of which deity
there is a well executed high-relief sculptured in the wall of the entrance ; and the
small passages have been worn and polished by the knees of pilgrims during
centuries.

I looked in vain at the face of the rock at the entrance, for some signs of a crack
corresponding to the plane of these chambers.

Some of the deep and narrow ravines of the surrounding hills, seem to have been
formed by the caving in of similar caverns. "*

In parts of the empire, these caves abound in fossil bones, which are excavated
and used in medicine, under the name of " dragon's bones," " dragon's claws," etc.

This limestone, forming, as it does, the floor of the Coal measures, appears,
surrounding the different basins of these, in highly inclined beds, forming as it
were a narrow frame, or, having a gentler dip, it occupies a broader space.

Porphyry Conglomerate. — In the mountains that border the Wangping basin on
the north and west, there are extensive masses and dykes of porphyry, which have
raised and cut through the limestone in all directions. From the detritus of this
intrusive rock, the beds of the lower Coal measures at Chaitang, which are equivalent
to those marked No. 3 in the table, seem to have been formed. The reason for
supposing this, is, that as we approach the northern edge of the Chaitang basin,
we find the porphyry conglomerate underlying, in the form of a flat boss, the beds
forming the lower half of No. 5 which are eminently characterized by two peculiar
rocks, that marked as " compact green argiUite" and the stiU lower ones, " green
quartzose conglomerate." Further on we find, that the porphyry conglomerate
contains interstratified beds of sandstone. The fragments that forfli this extensive
member of the Chaitang series, are, for the most part, derived from the masses of
porphyry nearest at hand. Thus near Chingtai they are chiefly green felsitic
porphyry, similar to-that forming dykes in the limestone at Hiamaling, a few miles
distant, while, along the Hun river, red and green varieties predominate, intrusive
masses of both kinds occurring in the neighborhood.

Fragments of limestone and quartz are frequent in the porphyry conglomerate,
and would seem to characterize its upper portion. Thus I have indicated in the
table two distinct varieties, though perhaps on insufficient grounds.

This conglomerate furnishes an important page in the history of the Coal measures
in this region. It shows us that there had been an elevation of the limestone,
perhaps caused or accompanied by the intrusion of the porphyries, before the
overlying rocks were deposited. The presence of fragments of limestone, quartz.

14 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

and porphyry, shows that these older rocks had been subjected to an extensive
denudation.

In the narrow gorge, through which the creek finds its way from the Chaitang
valley to the Hun river, the contact between the limestone and porphyry con-
glomerate is visible (Fig. 1). The limestone strata
are cut through at a right angle, and are seen to

Fig. 1 '^ /iljUJII ^^P a-bout 80° to the S.

"'Ij' I did not obtain an observation of the dip of the

11, conglomerate in this section to know whether it

mm§

■ conforms to that. of the limestone.

The coal district of Chaitang forms an area of

7

low hnis, and is limited on the north by the por-

a. Upper limestone. t i • i i j i, -n

6. Lower porphyry conglomerate. phyry conglomerates, whose high and rugged hills

are overtopped in the background by the yellow
cliffs of the limestone. To the south rises a high ridge consisting, apparently, of
the rocks of the Coat measures and dykes of porphyry, and separating the coal
district of Chaitang from that of the Wangping creek. To the west is a high and
hilly country mainly of porphyry.

About four miles W. N. W. of Chaitang, in the midst of this porphyry, lies the
small coal district of Chingshui, and about five miles S. W. are the anthracite
mines of the Tatsau district.

The valley of Chaitang has been occupied by a lake, the alluvial deposits of which
now form terraces and cap hills over one hundred feet high. The trend of the tilted
strata in the centre of the district is very uniformly N. W., and the dip is to N. E.
and to S. W., forming both synclinal and anticlinal ridges. But as we approach
the western end the trend becomes irregular, though the dip is toward the porphyry.
Indeed, the edge of these mountains of porphyry, seems to mark the line of a great
fault, perhaps combined with an immense overflow of that rock.

The following description of the more important coals is extracted from my
Ileport to the Chinese Government, which is published in the "United States Diplo-
matic Correspondence, 1864, Part III."

For more perfect analyses of some of these and other coals by Mr. J, A. Mac-
donald, the reader is referred to Appendix No. 2.

Prlacipal Mines. — The Futau mine, which lies about five li (less than two miles)
S. S. E. of Chaitang, and from one hundred and fifty to two . hundred feet above
the level of the creek at that town, is remarkable as producing a " steam coal" that
is equal if not superior to the best Welsh variety.

The seam, in which several openings have been made, is irregular in thickness,
this varying from six to twelve feet, though in the mean averaging, probably, not
less than seven feet. Near the roof the coal has a tendency to crumble, near the
floor it is slaty; aU the rest of the seam furnishes large blocks of firm and excellent
fuel.

The coal has a brilliant lustre, is made up of well-defined layers, and has a tendency
to a cubical fracture. It ignites quickly, burning with a long flame and little smoke.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 15

Opening slightly, it burns without caking and without falling to pieces, and leaving
a very little gray ash.

I- found by dry assay, using the exceedingly imperfect means at my command
in Peking, the following results :^ —

Sp.gr. 1.31

Parts of lead reduced from oxide by one part of coal . . 31.50

Corresponding value in units of heat 1245.00'

Percentage of ash 4.00

There are several seams parallel to this one both above and below it, one of
which is six or seven feet thick, and only thirty feet above it. The dip of the beds
is about 45°.

So defective is the Chinese system of mining, that the proprietor of this mine
could not undertake to furnish from it more than eight hundred and fifty tons
yearly. The selling price, at the mouth of the mine, is $2 00 per ton of 2,000
pounds.

In the Fushun mine, apparently on the same seam, the coal reaches a thickness
of thirty-five feet, though it averages much less.

Hsingshun Mine. — This is on one of a series of seams, that crop out in a valley
about five li N. W. of Chaitang, and which I take to be younger than that of the
Futau. The horizon of these seams is well characterized, in the Chaitang district,
by the occurrence among them of beds of a peculiar quartzose conglomerate breccia,
called by the natives horsetooth stone (from the appearance of pieces of chert it
contains). This rock forms the floor of the seam in which lies the Hsingshun mine,
while the roof is sandstone, and between these the seam dips at first 50°, changing
gradually to 90°. Within a limited space the thickness of the coal varies from
three to eight feet.

The coal is without lustre, and has an irregular flaky structure. It ignites
quickly, burning with a long flame, cakes readily and leaves a red ash.

Sp.gr 1.28

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal .... 31.40

Units of heat 1222.00

Percentage of ash . . . . . . . . 3.00

The miners burn it in small heaps to a very light and porous coke.

Tatsau Mine. — About five miles S. W. of Chaitang is the Tatsau, or " great seam"
of anthracite. It consists of two seams separated by about eight feet of sandstone,
the upper one being from twenty-three to thirty-five feet thick, and the lower from
seven to eighteen feet. The roof is formed by the same peculiar conglomerate
breccia that characterizes the Hsingshun beds, the floor being sandstone, and dipping
about 45° to N. W.

About six-tenths of the produce is anthracite of a superior quality, coming out in

* See Appendix No. 2.

" Without the correction of + ^.

16

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

large, firm pieces formed of well-defined layers, with conchoidal fracture and bril-
liant metallic lustre.''

Sp. gr. . . . . .

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal
Units of heat .....

Percentage of asli (gray)

L55

33.40

1682.00

4.00

Eight men produce about four tons daily, and the selling price at the mouth of
the mine is $1 70 per ton. A short distance N. W. of the Tatsau is a high cliflf of
porphyry, forming part of the edge of the porphyry hills that bound the Chaitang
district on the west. This rock is said, by the Tatsau miners, to cut off the coal
and its accompanying rocks.

The annexed wood-cuts (Figs. 2 and 3) serve to give some idea of the Tatsau mine.

The entrance is by the gallery a, at first horizontal, then rapidly descending to
the inclined shaft h. These are in the smaller and lower seam. A drift leads to
the level d. Fig. 3, in the larger seam. In working the coal the miners drive a
level, as far below the surface as the amount of water will permit, and extending
horizontally along the foot wall as far as the limits of the mine, with a breadth
equal one-half of the seam when this is less than twenty feet. Beginning at the
end h, they excavate the coal below the gallery, at /, to a depth of from ten to
twenty feet. When this has advanced a short distance they break down from the

* See Appendix No. 2.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

17

top e, and working back the coal is won from above and below the gallery at the
same time, the refuse small coal, here about four-tenths of the whole, serving as a
support g, in place of that extracted. The water is carried out by the inclined
shaft h, fig. 2, the work being done by blind men, one of these standing in each of
the hollowed out steps c, and bailing the water from his step to the one above him.

The coal is drawn out on sleds, by men, through h and a, only one-half the
breadth of h being cut into steps for drainage.

Ghingshui Mines. — These mines are in a narrow valley, about five miles W. N. W.
of Chaitang, in the midst of the porphyry mountains. There seem to be several
seams, but the Confusion caused by the numerous dykes of porphyry is very great.
In two of the seams the toof is formed by these dykes, at least for a considerable dis-
tance, while others are cut through by them, and in places only fragmentary portions
of a seam, and its accompanying beds are left. Fig. 4 gives a general idea of the
relation between some of the seams, and the porphyry as seen in the side of a moun-
tain valley. Fig. 5 is a section of a fragment of the coal series only a few square

u.. Forptyry. 6. Coal series, v. Coal seams. a. Porphyry. 6. Goal series, c. Coal seam. d. Creek rubtle.

rods in extent, cut oif on one side by the porphyry, and on the other by the creek.
The coal of this locality is very bituminous, and I failed, during my short visit, to
find any indications of the metamorphism, often observed in the action of dykes
on coal, especially where basalt has broken through tertiary broWn coal forma-
tions.

The coal of the second seam from, the right. Fig. 4 c,^ is very brilliant, clean, and
firm, breaking with a cubical fracture. It is very inflammable and melts and cakes,
burning with a long flame, and leaving considerable ash.

Spec, gr 1.38

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 29.00

TJnits of heat 66T0.00

Percentage of ash . . . . . . . . 12.00

The seam from which this coal was taken had been worked about 500 feet on an
incline, until stopped by water, and averaged between 7 and 8 feet in thickness.
The fuel was best in the middle of the seam, and improved with the increasing
depth. The proprietor worked two shifts of thirty men each, viz., eight miners,
six carriers, ten water raisers, four men at mouth of mine, and two overseers.
One miner produced, per shift, 1500 catties (about 1900 lbs.), of which two-thirds
was coarse coal, and one-third fine.

3 ^pril, 1866.

* See Appendix No. 2.

18 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

The fuel, from this place, is almost all used in the tile-glazing establishments of
Peking.

Porphyries. — In the mountains north of the "Wangping coal basin, the limestone
has been much disturbed by the intrusion of porphyry, which, in some places,
traverses it in the form of large dykes, and in others rising under it in large dome-
like masses, causes the overlying strata to dip from these in aU directions.

As the porphyry conglomerates, at the bottom of the Coal series, are mostly
derived from these rocks, their eruption took place before the Coal measures were
deposited. Two varieties of felsitic porphyry were observed here, both younger
than the limestone, and both represented in the conglomerate. One of these forms
dykes on the ridge of Hiamaling and along the*Hun Ho, between this ridge and
Chingpaikau. At the first-named place, it incloses immense fragments of the
black clay slate that divides the upper and lower members of the limestone.

This porphyry contains, in a compact, slightly greenish base, a little green mica
and numerous crystals of a triclinic, milky-white and slightly opalescent feldspar,
and is free from visible quartz. The feldspar weathers yeUowish-red, and the base
dirty-white. The rock strikes fire with the steel, though not very readily.

Near Yenchi, on the Hun Ho, a few miles below Hiamaling, is the second variety.
It contains, in a Hght-pink base, crystals of feldspar, apparently orthoclase, and no
visible quartz. The porphyry that cuts ofi' the coal rocks near the Tatsau, is proba-
bly younger than the Coal measures, although it is uncertain whether it occurs in
that locality as a dyke, or whether it is brought into the position it there occupies
by a great fault.

This rock has, in a compact gray base, tending to green, numerous prisms of
hornblende and small crystals of white feldspar, some of which at least are triclinic.
It contains no visible quartz, and. strikes fire with difficulty. Thus its character-
istics are those of a hornblendic porphjry.-

At Chingshui, two varieties of porphyry were observed, both traversing the coal
rocks. In one of these, the base is black and fine-grained, containing numerous
minute and small crystals of a transparent, colorless feldspar, certainly for the most
part triclinic. There is no visible quartz, and the rock strikes fire with difficulty.

About ten miles S. E. of the entrance to the Nankau pass, near the granite point
that juts out into the plain at Yangfang, there is an extensive fault in the limestone,
the strata of this rock dipping toward the fault. Between the Hue of this fault
and the granite there is a broad dyke of quartziferous porphyry. In a fine-grained
pink base, it contains crystals of pink orthoclase and abundant grains of quartz.

It may not be out of place to mention here the coal districts of Muntakau and
Fangshan. The former of these forms part of the Wangping basin where this dis-
appears under the plain of Peking. The valley of Muntakau formj in itself a
small bay, containing terraces of the plain deposit ; there are said to be thirteen
seams of anthracite in the sides of the vaUey, most of which have been worked
since during the Ming dynasty.

Those seams which I visited alternate with sandstones and argillaceous shales,
and underlie the peculiar green quartzose conglomerate that characterizes the lower
part of the Chaitang series.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 19

The Tehyih mine seems to be the most important, and has been worked for a
horizontal distance of 8,500 feet. The seam is very irregular in thickness, varying
from a mere thread to six or seven feet, and as much so in strike and dip. The
anthracite is duU and hard and made up of layers. It flies to pieces in burning.^

Spec. gr. ......... . 1.79

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 31.00

Units of heat 1130.00

Percentage of ash 7.00

In this mine one miner produces on an average only about 100 catties — 133 lbs.
— daily, and the loss of time in bringing the coal to the surface is very great, the
man who drags the sled being obliged, from the lowness of the gallery, to go on his
knees the entire distance of more than a mile and a half. The men protect their
knees and hands with cushions, a precaution of which I Avas able to appreciate the
value after having gone in about 6,000 feet and back without any such protection.

The galleries grow smaller as the mine grows older, for, in replacing the old
timber it often happens that the miners dare not remove an old piece, but are
obliged to place the new one under it, and in this way the lapse of time reduces
the height of the only thoroughfare of the mine, I was surprised on seeing at the
entrance a very large fan-blower, made much like the machines used for fanning
rice (which, in turn, are the same as our own fanning machines), and which is
used here for ventilation.

In the district of Fangshan all the coal is said to be anthracite. Several seams are
traversed by the galleries of the Yingwo mine, the lowest seam being only about 160
feet above the limestone, the intervening beds consisting of argillaceous shales, and
the whole apparently conformably stratified with the limestone. The strike of these
beds is E. W., and the dip about 30° to N. The lowest seam, which furnishes the
most of the production of the mine, is very irregular, varying in thickness from one
to thirty feet. The anthracite is very friable and flaky. ^

Spec, gr 1.86

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 27. 70

Units of heat 63tl.00

Percentage of ash ........ 15.00

At Changkauyii, about eight miles W. by N. from Fangshan, is the Tashhitang
mine, which is interesting as shoAving the manner in which the Chinese work on a
large scale. The inclination of the seam varies from 50° to 90°, and the thickness
from one to thirty feet, the average being estimated at six feet. The coal is called
Jiaime, i. e., black coal, and is a hard, lustreless anthracite, in layers with irregular
fracture.

Spec gr 1.80

Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal .... 31.50

Units of heat 7245.00

Percentage of ash ... 5.50

' See Appendix No. 2 for better analyses.
° See Appendi.x No. 2.

20 GEOLOGICAL 11 ESEATv, CUES IN

The workings extend to a horizontal distance of about 6,000 feet, the drainage
being effected by a fault, and the ventilation by an opening through old workings
to day-light.

The mine is entered by an inclined gallery, descending in the seam, at an angle
of about 30°, till near the water level. From the foot of this a horizontal or slightly
rising level is driven in the coal to the extreme limit of the intended mine, in this
instance over 6,000 feet.

In extracting the coal only those portions of the seam are worked which are
sufficiently thick to admit the miner without cutting into the walls.

The "winning" is conducted on the following general plan: where the coal
is sufficiently thick, rising galleries are driven at an angle of about 30°, from the
tops of which a level extends in both directions as far as the seam retains the pro-
per thickness. From this level other rising galleries and a second level are driven,
and so on till the whole enlarged part of the seam is opened, forming pillars twenty-
five or thirty feet high, with a length that seems to be very variable. The timbering
is now removed from the upper gallery, and the coal broken ck)wn from the roof,
the miner working from a scaffolding. In this manner working from the farthest
and uppermost pillars toward the main level the coal is all taken out, unless the
extent of the enlarged part of the seam is too great, in which case piUars are left
standing. The coal is all carried on basket-sleds to the main level, and through
this to the surface. A great deal of timbering is used, chiefly the wood of fruit
trees, etc., and costing at the mine twenty-nine cents per 100 lbs.

One miner produces on the average about 700 lbs. daily, his wages being thirty-
nine cents. About four-fifths of the coal is a mixture of small pieces and powder.
The owner of the mine considered himself able to produce between thirty and
forty tons, of coarse and fine, daily. The price at the mine is $3.60 per ton (2000
lbs.) for the lump coal, and |2.00 for the fine, which is bought to make cakes simi-
lar to our patent fuel. The better varieties of the Fangshan cgif^ls are taken to a
depot at the head of boat navigation on the Liuli Ho,^ about twelve miles from
Fangshan, where the selling price is about $5.50 per ton.

The better varieties of the Chaitang and Muntakau districts are carried on mules
and camels to Peking, where the selling price of the former is about two and a half
times the price at the mines.

So far as I could ascertain, all the coal worked in the district of Fangshan and
in the eastern portion of the Wangping field is anthracite. The only instance of
an intrusive rock that I observed in the Fangshan district, was west of the city,

Granite, b. Fine-grained micaceous rock. c. Sandstone altered to qnartzite. d. Limestone, e. Black play-
shale with four seams/of anthracite, g. Quartzose conglomerate, h. Creek alluvion.

* A tributary of the Peiho.

CHIXA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 21

where a low ridge of granite runs N. S. and is succeeded on its western side by
the vertical coal rocks, also trending N. S., while almost everywhere else in the
district the strike of these last is E. AV.

The preceding section is simply intended to show the relation of the strata to the
granite.^ The limestone d, is about 600 feet thick, and seems to be a member of
the Coal measures proper. The black shale e, with its seams of anthracite /, is
about 500 feet thick.

From the Plain of Peldng to Kalgan.

As we approach the Nankau pass, through which lies the great high-road from
Peking to Central and Western Asia, we find the edge of the plain deposit rising
with a more rapid slope toward the bordering mountains, while at the same time,
the firm, fine loam gives place to rolled fragments and gravel of limestone and
granite, from the neighboring hills. The pass is reached by the transverse valley of
the Nankau creek.

Leaving the plain, we pass between lofty cliffs of limestone for about six miles,
before reaching the axial granite of the ridge. The trend of the strata, which is
N. 60'^ E., with a dip of 40° to S. E. by S. ^ S. at the edge of the plain, becomes
irregular as we approach the granite, the beds being in places almost horizontal,
and in others vertical ,and striking E. W. The latter case occurs at about two and
a half miles from the plain, where a side ravine discloses a dyke of a black erup-
tive rock, inclosed between the strata to which its plane is parallel. This rock has,
in a black compact base, thin transparent crystals of amber colored triclinic feldspar.
The dyke is only a few feet thick, and is made up of transverse columns. Near
the grand marble arch of the Kiiyungkwan, the limestone is cut through by red
porphyry, which is itself traversed by a greenstone dyke. The porphyry contains
a little quartz, green mica, and crystals of ortlioclase in a compact pink base. The
greenstone is apparently a fine-grained diorite.

The granite of the Nankau pass consists chiefly of large crystals of flesh-colored
orthoclase, black mica, and comparatively little quartz, with crystals of white triclinic
feldspar. Near the middle of the pass there is a diiferent and somewhat remarka-
ble variety, almost free from mica, and consisting of pearly white orthoclase and.
gray quartz in nearly equal proportions. It is slightly cellular, containing prismatic
crystals of white and smoky quartz in the small cavities.

The first of these varieties is traversed near Chatau by dykes of a pink rock,
consisting of a fine-grained mixture of orthoclase and quartz with very little green-
ish mica — one of those rocks that form the link between quartziferous porphyry
and true granite. These dykes are in places crossed by others, probably of diorite,
consisting of a fine-grained mass of hornblende and feldspar.

The ridge we have just crossed extends to the S. W., forming, in Shansi near
the Chihli boundary, a series of high peaks which, on the 26th of April, 1864, were

» Unfortunately most of the specimens and notes from tliis interesting locality were lost.

22 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

covered with snow, rendering their great domes visible frona the valley of the
Yang Ho, towering above the mountains that occupy the intervening space of sixty
or eighty miles. From the low Nankau pass, we descend to the Kwei Ho, a small
tributary of the Yang Ho, Avhich occupies a broad N. E. S. W. valley.

High terraces of a recent lake-deposit occupy the greater part of the valley, con-
cealing the rocks and resting at "Chatau on the granite. About a mile west of
Chatau rise small hills of a porphyry conglomerate, in beds trendisig E. N. E. and
dipping to N. N. W. about 40°. As we go toward Yiiliii the fragments and rub-
ble on the surface consist of porphyry, granite, and some limestone.

Descending frotn the lake terraces and crossing the flats of the Kwei Ho we reach
Hweilai (hien), situated on the terrace that fringes the northern border of the
valley. Within the walls of this city limestone is seen to crop out in beds trending
nearly N. E., and dipping to N. W. Going N. W. from here, over the terrace,
the only index to the structure of the neighboring hiUs is in the angular and
rounded fragments on the surface, and these consist of hornblendic gneiss, granite,
quartz, porphyries and limestone till Shachung.

BetAveen this city and the town of Sinpaungan the hills consist of the Coal mea-
sures, resting on the limestone, which here dips N. W. into the mountains called
Papaushan. (See sect. PI. III.) Between the coal rocks of this mountain and the
remarkable limestone hill Kimingshan, there is an anticlinal basin filled with gravels
of the lake terrace deposit, and formed by the erosion of an anticlinal fold of the
limestone.

Ip the Kiming mountain the limestone beds are almost vertical, and so highly
metamorphosed that in places the rock is almost flint, and their trend has changed to
N. S. On the western side of the hill are the vertical strata of the Coal measures
with seams of anthracite of poor quality, that have long been worked. The coal
rocks of Kiming bend around the northern end of the hill, and extend away to the
east, while on the other side of the Yang Ho they seem to extend up the valley of
the Sankang Ho.

Crossing this small field to the northwest along the Yang Ho, we reach a deep
gorge, through which the river traverses the limestone ridge that forms the northern
border of the coal basin. In this gorge the limestone trends N. 70° to 75° E., dip-
ping 25° to S. by E. J E. Near the village of Hiangshui (pu), at the N. W. end
of the gorge, the limestone suddenly ceases, and an open country of low hiUs of a
peculiar rock, an amygdaloid, succeeds to the high ridge of limestone. Near the
line of contact, the limestone trends as before, E. by N., dipping to S. by E., Avhile
the beds of the amygdaloid have the same trend, but a northerly dip. Here we
seem to be on the line of an immense fault, for, although the fault itself was not
seen, everything seems to point to it. The amygdaloid contains fragments of lime-
stone, and strongly resembles in every respect a similar rock, which we shall see
further on, forming a member of the Kiming Coal measures. This slip must, have
been extensive, as the limestone cliff's seem to be nearly 1000 feet high. The
amygdaloid, corresponding apparently to the Schalstein of the Germans,, is, perhaps,
a tufa of the greenstone-porphyry that occurs in it in fragments.

We soon emerge from these hills upon the plains of SiuenhAva (fu) , which occupy

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

23

another enlargement of the Yang Ho valley, and are also lake terrace deposits. The
road lies over this lake bed till about ten miles N. E. of the city of Siuenhwa (fu),
where a spur extends westward from the mountains. This spur consists of a double
ridge, with an intervening longitudinal depression, the southernmost portion being
formed by beds, highly inclined to N. and trending E. W., of quartzite, red argil-
laceous sandstone, and a compact white rock, apparently an-altered argillite. »rhese
beds, which seem to be the equivalent of the great limestone formation, will be
referred to again in discussing the Hwaingan strata.

The northern part of the double ridge is a remarkable porphyry, which has either
traversed or overlies the last mentioned beds. This rock may be called the Kalgan^
porphyry, as it is extensively developed around that city, although it occurs also in
the hills of the Gobi desert. It belongs to the trachytic series.

On the southern flank of this spur the lake deposit rises rapidly toward the hills,
and the firm loam, of which it here consists, is cut into by deep gullies. In one of
these places a section is exposed of horizontal beds, apparently the tufas of the

TWiiWilft ^^g-^

a. Terrace loam. b. WUite tufa. t. Red tnfaceous sandstone.

Kalgan porphyry. The effects of an erosion previous to the deposition of the lake
loam are visible.

We shall find similar tufaceous deposits intimately associated with the Kalgan
porphyry near that town.

From the s^ur we have been examining we follow the road over the lake deposit,
to Kalgan, or Changkiakau. High and rugged hills of the trachytic porphyry
inclose the valley on the east, while to the north lies a higher range of mountains,
which, as it forms a geographical as well as political boundary, and represents
approximately the line of the Great Wall, we may call the Barrier range.

a. White and red tufas, b. Kalgan porphyry, c. Tower of the Great Wall.

At Kalgan this range is traversed by a gorge, with vertical walls, through Avhich
a small stream finds its way to the Yang Ho from the edge of the Mongolian plateau.

» The Russian name for Changkiakau, an important market town and gate of the Great Wall.

2i GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Here is the most important gate of the Great Wall through which pass all the
caravans to Russia, and nearly all those that trade with Western Asia.

The mountains here consist of the tufaceous rocks of the Kalgan porphyry, which
are traversed by dykes, and contain beds, of the parent rock. The portions of the
range where this formation predominates are easily distinguished from those con-
sisting of the usual granite and metamorphic schists, the latter forming pyramidal
hUls, while the former have the castellated appearance that is given by cliffs and
dykes. The white and red tufas form low hills west of Kalgan, and in the wall of
the gorge, in the Barrier range, beds of these rocks trending E. W., and dipping
about 45° to N., seem to extend under the porphyry, Fig. 8.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 25

CHAPTER lY}

STRTCTURE OP THE SOUTHERN EDGE OF THE GREAT TABLE'
LAND, AND OF NORTHERN SHANSI AND CHIIILI.

Two roads, slightly divergent, lead from Kalgan to Urtai on the plateau. About
a mile and a half from the town, on the east road, the trachytic porphyry forma-
tion appears, under circumstances that would seem to show that much of it is of
pluto-neptunian origin.

This formation extends several miles further north Snd northeast till it is limited
by the metamorphic schists of the range. On the west road the same formation
exists tni near Tutinza, on the northern side of the range, and furnishes slabs of
tufa and blocks of porphyry for building purposes.

The country crossed by the road between the Barrier range and the edge of the
plateau is a depression, here abput nine mUes broad. On either side of the road
are flat-topped hills 80 to 100 feet high, of gravel made up in great part of rolled
fragments of quartziferous porphyry. This gravel, which I take to be of the same
age as the lake loam and terrace deposits, also forms the low hills traversed by the
eastern roa,d, where it covers a brown-coal basin probably of tertiary origin, of which,
unfortunately, I was able to see only specimens of the coal.

About half way between Tutinza and Hanoor the road begins to rise to the
plateau, and leaving China proper, with the edge of the table-land, we reach the
steppes of Tartary.

The height of the edge is here 5,400 feet above the sea, according to the measure-
ment of Fuss and v. Bunge, and probably not less than from 3,000 to 3,600 feet
above Changkiakau, and the edge itself forms a precipitous wall to the south, while
the plateau slopes oiF gently to the north.

From a tower of the Great Wall, which crowns a hill near Hanoor, we have,
spread out before us, a grand panorama of the surrounding country. The natural wall
formed by the abrupt termination of the table-land stretches away from the tower
far off to the west and northeast, bounding the valley south of it as a precipitous
coast bounds the sea. Between us and the Barrier range, the depression, occupied
by low hiUs of the eroded gravels, lies like a neutral belt between two regions of the
earth in almost every respect widely different each from the other. To the south
only barren and rugged mountains meet the eye, and beyond these to the Southern
Ocean, the mountainous character is redeemed only by the fertile valleys of a few

* For this Chapter see Map, PL No. 2, and Sections, PI. No. 3.
April, isee.

23 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

large rivers. To the north lie the endless plains of Tartary rarely crossed by other
than low ridges.

At the point where the road begins to rise to the table-land, we enter upon the
volcanic formation of Southern Mongolia. From the Jbase of the plateau-wall to
the summit, we may look in vain for other than the rocks of this formation, and as
we travel westward we shall see little else while on the plateau.

Our road now follows a general westerly course, keeping near the edge of the
table-land. The surface of the plateau along this route is everywhere cut into
by valleys varying in depth from one to several hundred feet. The tops of the hills
thus formed are flat, and in the same plane — that of the original plateau surface —
excepting where the erosion has isolated small hills, in which case they present
knobs lower than the general plane. The sides of these hills form in places cliffs,
but more generally they slope off to the valley bottoms. The width of the valleys
varies from a few hundred feet to three or four miles, the smaller ones sometimes
narrowing to a gorge, and again reopening to their usual size. They frequently form
fertile meadows with brooks winding through them, and are then the camping
grounds of the Mongols, and the pastures of their large herds of sheep, horses, cows,
and camels. The pasture is not confined to the bottoms, the whole country, hill and
valley, being clothed Avith excellent grass.

Soon after leaving Hanoor we reach a small lake, or rather pond, without outlet,
inclosed in the depression between several knobs. It is difiicult to understand how
these small depressions are formed, unless we suppose them to represent former
inequalities in the bottoms of valleys once occupied by running streams. Such
small lakes are characteristic of Mongolia, and we shall have occasion to notice
several.

Continuing westward, the road passes the lama-monastery of Boroseiji, and
ascends the grassy valley of a small tributary of the Narin Gol.^ This stream rises
at the very edge of the plateau, flows N. E. by Urtai, and turning to the south de-
scends from the plateau at Teutai, and passing through the gorge at Changkiakau,
joins the Yang Ho.

Leaving the system of this stream, we pass over a ridge, part of the original
plateau, near which is a hill rising several hundred feet above us, consisting, to judge
froin fragments on the surface near by, of chloritic gneiss. This is an isolated peak,
rising through the volcanic formation which has buried the rest of the ridge.

Descending to the west we enter another fine valley, apparently that of a tributary
of Angouli Noor.^ Through this valley flows a creek which, near the Mongol village
of Hanoortai, widens to a small lake, the abode in summer of thousands of wild
ducks. From this valley the road passes over a low ridge and descends by a nar-
row, rocky defile to the plain of Taulichuen, in which is the source of one of the
tributaries of the Yang Ho. We have here left the plateau, and are among the cul-
tivated fields of the Chinese,^ but we are stUl on the volcanic formation.

* Go], Mong. for river. Wherever this word occurs in this itinerary it refers only to small brooks.
' Noor, Mong. for lake.

• The Chinese are forbidden by law the cultivation of land on the plateau.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 27

Leaving tlus plain, we again rise to the table-land, and following, for six or seven
miles, its abrupt edge we come again to a sudden descent by which we leave it and
enter upon a rolling country. The plateau wall makes here a great bend, trending
away to the northwest. *

The ^country over which our road now lies is a rolling plateau formed by a broad
swell, or ridge, of the granitic and schistose rocks, from which the volcanic plateau
covering has been eroded. On it are the sources of another tributary of the Yang Ho.

The rocks are granite, syenite, and crystalline metamorphic schists.

This bay-shaped indentation of the southern edge of the plateau is about 15 or 20
miles broad; it is drained in part by a valley descending toward the southwest, and
is surrounded on the east, Avest, and north ^j the wall of the higher plateau. The
northern portion of this bay forms a depression that is only partially drained, and
which at times is evidently a marshy region, while it contains at all seasons three
small lakes — Gurban Noor. In April the country about these lakes was covered
with scattered tufts of grass, between which the dry clayey surface was white with
an efflorescence of soda, and the borders of the lakes also were incrusted with a
dazzling layer of the same salt.

About two miles west of the Mongolian camp of Gurban Nopr, the higher table-
land again begins, but with a somewhat different character. Rising to the top of a
granite ridge, we descend a little on the west into a plateau-valley. On either side
and before us are everywhere the same flat-topped hills we. have seen forming the
table-land, but they are only the remnants of a volcanic covering insignificant in
thickness compared with that we have seen farther east. The valleys have every-
where cut through this covering and into the granito-schistose foundation.

Our road now lies through a succession of circular and oblong meadow-valleys,
connected by narrow outlets, thus forming one valley-course, and containing a small
brook, the Hoyurtoloho Gol, which flows S. E. The meadow enlargements are evi-
dently the beds of small lakes filled with the detritus of the surrounding volcanic
and granitic rocks.

Following this valley in a general S. W. direction from the Mongol camp, Hoyur-
toloho Gol, we descend through a narrow defile in chloritic granite, into another bay
cut out of the plateau, and open to the S. E., where the drainage finds an exit
through the valley of the Si Ho, another tributary of the Yang Ho.

Soon after leaving the gorge, by which we have descended, the road crosses a lava
stream one or two thousand feet broad, and from sixty to eighty feet thick, which
crosses the valley, and is cut throiigh by the rivulet. In this section it shows
columnar structure,- and is in places porous and amygdaloidal. A mountain form-
ing apparently a detached portion of the neighboring plateau, and having the ap-
pearance of a half-destroyed crater, seems to be the origin of the stream. The
eruption causing this occurrence must have been subsequent to the erosion of this
part of the plateau, and was probably subaerial. The locality is interesting as
being the only one in which I noticed traces of true volcanic action more recent
than that to which the volcanic formation of Southern Mongolia owes its origin.

Crossing the valley of the Si Ho, which leaves this bay-shaped depression at the

28 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

S. E., we enter another valley opening in the S. "VV. Frequent fragijients of a cal-
careous deposit strewed over the surface indicate the action of mineral springs.

Gradually ascending this valley, which, as well as that of the Si Ho, is occupied by
a deposit of loam, probably contemporanecms with the terrace loam of the Yang Ho,
we reach a point where this loam deposit, by forming a bar across the valley, causes
a low watershed, on one side of which any drainage there may be flows north to the
Si Ho, and on the other south to the undrained lake Chaganoussu.

We shall see that this remarkable occurrence of alluvial watersheds stretching
across valleys is intimately connected with the formation of the undrained lakes of
this portion of IMongolia, having its origin in a former system of great inland lakes,
and its continuance in the dryness of thje climate.

The grassy valley of Chaganoussu has two other openings through the plateau,
one on the east connecting it with the Si Ho valley, and another on the west leading
to the Kir Noor. Both of these are crossed by bars covered by the terrace loam, if
not entirely formed by it. Our road, after skirting the shallow pond of Chaganoussu
enters the valley leading to the southwest, and passing the dried up bed of the Ho-
yur Noor descends through a narrow defile till it emerges into the great depression
of the Kir Noor.

From the Si Ho to this point the rocks, both of the adjoining plateau and of the
exposed parts of the valley bottom, belong throughout to the volcanic formation.

From the edge of the plateau, near where the road enters the Kir Noor valley, a
view of the whole of this ancient lake-bed is spread out beneath us. It is a large
plain about 15 miles broad, its longer axis trending about N. N. W. On both sides
the lofty and bold plateau edge is seen stretching away to N. N. W. and S. S. E., as
far as the eye can reach, without meeting to inclose the valley.

Away to the southwest of us a distant portion of the plain covered with a dazzling
Avhite efflorescence marks the position of the Kir Noor of a few years since. From
this, the most depressed part of the plain, the surface rises toward every point
of the compass. Far away to the north a bar of the lake deposit seems to stretch
from wall to wall of the valley, while in the south this is certainly the case. Over
this southern alluvial bar the peaks of the Barrier range are seen in the distance.

To the N. N. W. a distant peak, capped with snow (April 18th), is visible rismg
above the level line of the table-land.

The edge of the plateau on both sides of the valley, wherever I visited it, consists
of the volcanic formation, from the summit to under the lake deposits, but the pre-
sence on the surface of the latter of granite detritus indicates the presence of the
older rocks at no great distance.

East of the Mongol village of Hoyurbaishin, a gully exposes a section of the
plain deposit near where this abuts against the edge of the plateau. The deposit
is stratified, and its beds have the same dip as the surface of the plain. It consists
of coarse sandstones and fine conglomerates, formed from the detritus of the neigh-
boring volcanic rocks and cemented by a calcareous mineral, the product, perhaps,
of springs, which enveloping each grain or pebble with concentric layers produces a
hard rock. The only trees seen in the valley of the Kirnoor were two old ones

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 29

growing in tins gully, nor did we meet witli any others either on the plateau or
in its valleys.

The lake is said to he drying up, and the Mongols say that its waters have flowed
into the T^ Hai farther west, an apparently unfounded belief, as there is no surface
communication between the two lakes, and the natives on the shores of the Te Hai
were not aware of any increase in its volume. StiU it is evident that the waters of
the Kir Noor are rapidly disappearing, and the cause, whether this be only tempo-
rary or a constantly operating change in the climate, has been acting for at least
several years. Among the lakes we have already noticed, the Chaganoussu is also
disappearing, and the adjoining Hoyur Noor has for several years been represented
only by its dry bed.

The greater part of the plain of the Kir Noor valley is clothed with grass, and
supports large herds of sheep, but as we approach the recent lake-bed the surface is
eroded by dry, shallow water-^courses, and is covered with tufts only of grass,
between which the ground is bare and cracked. This was apparently a marsh sur-
rounding the lake of which, a little further west, the dry bed is visible covered with
the white soda efilorescence, and stretching several miles west, north, and south.-^

The walls of this great valley, formed by the abrupt edge of the plateau, are
marked by a series of lines at different heights, and extending apparently hori-
zontally, and on the same level, along the faces of both sides of the valley. They
are reproduced on an island-like hill that rises from the plain, and are visible at a
distance of from ten to twelve miles to the naked eye. They are defined, where the
slope is gentle, by a continuous mass of large and small fragments of rock, and on
the steep declivities by slight variation in the angle of slope.

I was able to examine these lines in only one locality, and there they appeared
to be independent of the structure of the plateau, and I can account for them only
on the supposition that they mark former water levels.

Following the road from Hoyurbaishin to the Te Hai we cross, at about the middle
of the valley, a small stream of fresh water flowing from the north, and which is seen
to empty into the remnant of the lake a mile or two south of the road. StiU farther
west the road lies through a marshy tract. Two or three miles west of this we
reach a terrace of the lake-deposit, which descending rapidly from the western side
of the valley, faces the plain with a bluff. As the road ascends a ravine in this
terrace, the increasing proportion of fragments of granite and gneiss shows that we
are in the neighborhood of a rise in the granite foundation, while a few miles to the
north a ridge -rising several hundred feet above the level of the plateau, seems to be
the source of the fragments in question.

As we leave the terrace and the valley of Kir Noor, we pass a deep and gloomy
gorge cut through the plateau to its very foundation. Where seen it is barely
separated by a low ridge from a valley that leads into the Kir Noor. This chasm
seems to lead to the Karaoussu, a tributary of the Tourgen Gol, which is an affluent
of the Yellow river. The valley by which we leave the plain leads us in a S. S. W.

> For the results of an examination of the dried mud of the recent lake-bed, see Nos. 1 and 12 in
Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter, Appendix No. 3.

30 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

direction gradually ascending, the* flat-topped hills of the table-land shutting us in
on both sides, till we reach a watershed from which we look down on a large, deep,
circular valley, covered with grazing herds, and ornamented with the gilded spires of
a lama-temple. This valley is shut in on the north and west by the volcanic forma-
tion of the plateau, but its southern wall is of granite and gametic gneiss, capped
here and there by thin remnants of the plateau mantle. Still farther south, after
passing the village of Yingmachuen the plateau formation predominates, and the
long descent into the valley of the Te Hai^ is entirely over its rocks.

The great depression of the Te Hai is about twelve miles broad, and so far as the
plateau is concerned, appears to be open to the S. W. in the direction of its longer
axis. The northwestern side is formed by a serrated range of mountains, which
rises about 2,000 feet above the lake, between this and the plateau. The eastern
waU is of gneiss capped with the volcanic plateau formation, and the same would
seem to be the case with the southern wall, while, as we have seen, the northeastern
side is volcanic in its entire height. Thus the thickness of fiie volcanic mantle
varies, within a few mUes, several hundred feet.

The northeastern end of "the valley contains an extensive deposit of the terrace
- loam. This faces the lake with a bluff that stretches N. W. S. E. across the valley.

From this line the terrace rises toward the N. E. at first gradually, and then
rapidly, until in the long northeastern arm of the vaUey and in the side valleys, its
surface is several himdred feet above the lake.

Below this terrace Explain rises gently from the lake toward the mountains.

The terrace deposit is a firm, stratified loam, containing, near the hills, numerous
fragments of the neighboring rocks and layers of gravel. It is cut into by deep
ravines, in the sides of one of which, about five miles east of the lake, I found
several species of fresh-water univalves.

The lake is apparently about eight miles long by four or five broad. Its water
is salt, though far less so than seawater, and is not bitter. The flat surrounding it
is covered with a thin coating of soda efflorescence.^

While the valley of the Kir Noor is occupied exclusively by the Mongols and their
herds, that of the Te Hai is cultivated by Chinese, only one or two Mongol camps
being seen. Ancient watch towers, that dominate these plains, and from which
signals could be made to the long line of similar posts on the Great Wall, are silent
monuments of a time when the shores of these lakes were the home of an aggres-
sive race, ever threatening a descent into the fertile regions of China. Rising with
the terrace, the road leads us to the hills that form the southeastern wall of the
valley, and we pass through these by a deep and rocky ravine, in which the pass is
situated. These hills are, as I have already " said, of gneiss, characterized by an
abundance of garnets, and capped with the volcanic mantle. The stratification
trends, in the main, N. E. and dips 75° to N. W. Garnetiferous granulite, from these

' Daikha Noor of the Mongols.

" For negative results of a microscopical examination of the deposits, both of the terrace and the
flats, see Nos. 2 and 3, in Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter, Appendix No. 3.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 31

hills, occurs in the terrace deposits on their N. W. flank. From this hill we descend
into a small valley which empties into that of the Te Ilai. In this valley the terrace
loam is present to the height of probably not less .than 250 feet above the lake.

From here the road descends to the deep channel cut through the plateau, which
connects the great valley of the Te Hai with that of the Sankang Ho. This channel
is cut to the bottom of the volcanic mantle, here apparently over 1,000 feet thick,
and into the metamorphic rocks on which it lies.

In this channel we meet with another of those remarkable wateiisheds of terrace
deposit which stretching from wall to wall, slopes on the west toward the Te Hai,
and on the east toward the vaUey of the Sankang Ho. The material formingthis
bar is almost loose sand mixed with fragments from the volcanic and metamorphic
rocks, and is but little, if at all, eroded on the western flank, while there are gullies
on the eastern in which highly inclined beds of granulite, containing garnets, are
exposed.

At Maanmiau the vaUey opens to form the broad, swampy plain of Fungching,
rising from which are frequent low hillocks of gneiss in strata trending between E.
and N. E. Here the high plateau leaves the road; the part that has formed the
southern side of the valley since leaving the Te Hai, now trends away to the S. S. ^V.
till the steep face and level outline of its edge are lost in the far distance. On the
other side, the part which has formed the northern wall of the valley, continues a
few miles farther, and then, before reaching Fungching, bears away to E. N. E.

Although Ave have here left the higher plateau, we have not yet reached the south-
ern limit of the volcanic formation. At a level of perhaps 1,000 feet below the
surface of the higher plateau begins the lower plateau, the flat surface of which is
200 or 300 feet above the valley, and extends southward from the very edge of the
higher. It consists of the same volcanic formation as the higher table-land of which
it was, I think, without doubt, once the continuation, the continuity having been
broken by an immense fault — a supposition to which I shall recur further on.

The marshy plain of Fungching is fringed in places with low, flat hills, which owe
their form to the terrace deposit of loam, but under this, consist of a bright red,
sometimes loose material, apparently a wacke or a product of the decomposition of
the volcanic rocks. In this are fragments of a red calcareous mineral, a product
of the action of waters on the adjoining rock before or during its alteration. We
shall see a similar mineral filling crevices in the volcanic plateau formation. It
is perhaps the result of the metamorphic action of mineral springs rising along the
great fault-line.

A few miles beyond Fungching our road rises to the surface of the lower plateau,
and we obtain an open view from a ruined part of the Great Wall. To the north
we can see the precipitous edge of the higher table-land stretching far aAvay to the
northeast, the break in it formed by the valley of the Kir Noor, and its continuation
beyond this toward the Si Ho.^ To the south and east we see the barren crest and
peaks of the Barrier range. Between the higher table-land and this sierra is the
lower plateau on the southernmost spur of which we are standing. The valley we

In Mongol, Djookha Gol.

32 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

have followed from the Te Hai passes beneath us, and continues south to Tatung (fu)
and the Sankang Ho ; it is well watered and fertile.

Crossing this southern promontory of the lower plateau the road descends into
the valley of Kwantung (pu), a depression occupied by another tributary of the San-
kang Ho, and lying between the lower plateau and the Barrier range. This range
and a spur from it, form the southern and eastern limits of the valley, and the
lower plateau forms the northern side, while to the west it is open.

A quarry about half way up the edge of the plateau presents a good though
limited section in the volcanic formation. In this quarry two beds are visible — a
lower one of crystalline lava, which, toward the top, becomes porous and passes
into a true scoria, and an upper bed of more compact lava. Crevices extending
through both these beds are filled with a calcareous segregation.

The terrace deposit sweeps from the vaUey of Fungching around the southern
spur of the lower plateau, into the valley of Kwantung, from the centre of which it
rises rapidly up to the sides of the mountains, fiUing their ravines, to a height of
several hundred feet above the middle of the valley.

From the mountains forming the northeastern side a low spur juts out, narrowing
the valley, and in the space between the point of this spur and the southern wall
of the valley there is another of those remarkable watersheds to which I have seve-
ral times alluded. The terrace deposit rises from the west to form this bar (though
without reaching a height at all comparable to that to which it rises on the moun-
tain sides) and falls off again toward the southeast.

Crossing this bar, and descending toward the southeast, we traverse the Barrier
range by a deep and narrow gorge about eight miles long, through which flows
a small stream which, taking its rise in the northeastern part of the valley of Kwan
tung, empties into the Yang Ho.

tn this gorge the range is seen to consist of crystalline metamorphic schists,
chiefly gneiss, hornblende gneiss, hornblende schist, and hypersthenite, in strata
varying in trend between N. N. W. and N. N. E., the dip at the two ends of the
defile being toward the centre.

The terrace deposit occurs in this gorge and its side ravines, high above the
stream, and on emerging into the great valley of Yangkau it is seen rising from the
plain with an unbroken surface high up the sides of the Sierra north of the Yang-
kau valley, while south of the mouth of the defile it exist only as terraces several
hundred feet above the plain. The terrace deposit extends from here down the
valley of the Yang Ho to form the plains and terraces of the enlargements of the
valley at Siuenhwa (fu) and Shachung. But it is not confined to the present river
systems, for east of Tienching (hien) it caps the lower part of the ridge between the
valleys of Yangkau (hien) and Hwaingan (hien) forming a plateau of loam several
hundred feet above the valleys.

Following the road from Yangkau to Tienching, we have on the north the Barrier
range, a rugged sierra of which the barren peaks must be from 2,000 to 3,000 feet
high, above the valley. Along the line where the terrace deposit terminates on the
steep flank of the sierra, extends the now ruined Great Wall of China, with its
towers and parapets, till at a point opposite Tienching it crosses the mountains to

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 33

extend northward to the high plateau. The southern side of the valley is formed
by a lower ridge, beyond which higher mountains are seen, and over these the dis-
tant snow-capped^ peaks, or rather domes, of the range south of the Sankang Ho.

Leaving the valley of the Yang Ho neat Tienching, we cross over the terrace-
capped ridge before mentioned, into the valley of Hwaingan (^hien). To the north
of the road in crossing, and north of the whole valley of Hwaingan, the hills are
seen to consist of alternating strata of a bright red rock and of a harder rock, in
anticlinal and synclinal folds. The fragments brought by streams from the hill
forming the western part of the southern side of the valley, are gneiss and horn-
blende schist.

Following the Hwaingan creek to the northeast, the road approaches, near where
it emerges into the valley of the Yang Ho, a' fine section in the strata of the northern
hills. Resting on gneiss are strata of highly metamorphosed rocks, the continuation
of those we saw in the hills between Siuenhwa (fu) and Kalgan, and which for the
present may be called the Hwaingan beds. The valley of Hwaingan trends N. E.
by E., and this seems to be about the strike of the strata. In the exit into the
valley of the Yang Ho, the Hwaingan creek flows through a gorge formed by the
erosion, parallel to its axis, of an anticlinal ridge of the Hwaingan beds.

From this point our road crosses the valley of the Yang Ho, and brings us again
to Kalgan.

KALGAN TO SIWAN AND SINPAUNGAN.

Leaving Kalgan the road runs in a northeasterly direction through a deep gorge,
with vertical walls, in the Kalgan trachytic porphyry, and its pluto-neptunian
deposits, as far as Ulanhada. At this village it leaves the valley of the main stream,
and turning into a tributary valley, winds with this through the mountains, following
an easterly course to the Roman mission of Siwan. For eight or ten miles we see
only the rocks of the Kalgan porphyry, but before reaching the village of Siyin'sz,
these are followed by the crystalline metamorphic schists, which in turn are suc-
ceeded, before we reach Siwan, by syenitic granite. This last is eruptive, dykes
of it traversing the metamorphic strata, and the main body often containing frag-
inents of the schists. This rock forms the mountains around and beyond Siwan.

From Kalgan to this point, and beyond, the terrace deposit occupies the sides of
the mountains, and at Siwan its terraces form the sides of the valley to the height
of from 200 to 300 feet above the creek, and its vertical cliffs show it to be a fine,
compact loam. In it the Chinese excavate their dwellings in suites of apartments
having doors, windows, and partition walls, all cut in the loa,m. The walls are
simply plastered over to prevent the dust from falling, and in this condition they
last as long, if not longer, than the ordinary houses built of sunburnt clay.^ In the

» 26th April, 1864.

' These excavations are common wherever the terrace deposit occurs in Northern China.
5 May, 1866.

34: GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

course of these excavations, fossil remains of quadrupeds are obtained in consider-
able numbers, especially horns of deer.^

Leaving Siwan the road lies first southeast, then south, crossing two ridges of
chloritic gneiss and chloritic schist, and descending into the large oval valley of
Chauchuen. This valley is occupied by the terrace deposit. Our road ascends the
ridge forming the southern side of the valley. On the northern flank are the crys-
talUne metamorphic schists covered by limestone, and over this beds of porphyry
breccia vi^ith dykes of eurite. The terrace deposit rises almost to the summit of
this ridge on both sides. Descending through the deep gullies in the terrace
loam, the road enters the valley of a creek that empties into the Yang Ho, just north
of the Kiming mountain. From this valley Ave cross the ridge, by a low pass east
of the Kiming mountain, into the valley of the Yang Ho, and descend to Sinpaungan.
The low pass is covered by the terrace deposit, and beneath this on the northern
flank are the coal rocks of the Kiming field, among which I saw a greenstone por-
phyry conglomerate similar to that at Hiangshui (pu), and probably its equivalent.

The terrace deposit in the pass consists of loam with gravel and fragments of the
neighboring rocks, and occupies a higher level than the terraces of the valley to
the south.

I will now attempt a general description of the principal rocks met with on the
above journey. I am well aware that the following description can have but a very
limited value, owing to the absence both of chemical determinations and of closer
observations of the modes of occurrence.

Granitic and Crystalline Metamorphic Series.

Distribution. — These two classes of rocks form either collectively or individually
the main body of every ridge we have traversed. Of them consist the ridges that
rise through and above the volcanic mantle of the plateau, and they form the
foundation on which this rests wherever the foundation was seen. Indeed, they
are the skeleton of this region, supporting the limestone floor of the coal rocks.

Granite predominates in the first range where we crossed it in the Nankau pass ;
in the other localities, if it exist, it is covered by the crystalline schists.

Unstratified Granitic Rochs. — The main body of the ridge between Nankau and
Chatau consists of a granite containing two varieties of feldspar, about equally dis-
tributed in crystals varying from an eighth of an inch to three-quartgrs in length.
These are pink orthoclase and a white triclinic feldspar. The mica is a dark green
almost black, probably magnesian variety, and quartz is present in comparatively
small quantity. It is thus a granitite.

Near the middle of the pass is another variety, of even grain, consisting of only
white orthoclase and gray quartz, the latter often in sharply-defined, small prismatic
crystals imbedded in the mass. It is somewhat remarkable from small cells in which

' As all the fossils of any value had been sent to Paris previous to my visit, I was unable to obtain
any that were worth examining. It is to be desired that those now in Paris will be determined and
described in order to fix the age of the terrace formation.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 35

ends and corners of small crystals of the constituent feldspar and quartz are sharply-
developed.

The hills immediately surrounding Siwan, in the Great Wall range, east of Kal-
gan, consist of a reddish-gray syenite composed mainly of orthoclase, some gray
triclinic feldspar, crystals of hornblende, and a little quartz. Large crystals of
orthoclase render it porphyroid. Near the contact of this rock Avith the crystalline
schists west of Siwan, dykes of it are seen in the latter, while fragments of the schists
inclosed in the main body of the syenite are additional proof that it is eruptive, and
younger than the metamorphic schist formation. Fragments of this syenite are
inclosed in the pluto-neptunian rocks of the Kalgan porphyry.

A syenite of medium grain, composed of slightly pink orthoclase and hornblende,
occurs over a large part of the rolling land east of Murkwoching.

Fragments of a fine red granitite occur in the bed of the Yang Ho near Kiming,
and blocks of a red rock composed of fresh, bright-red orthoclase and grains of a
soft, talcose or steatitic mineral, thus approaching a protogine, are common in the
Hwaingan creek. At this latter locality there are many fragments of a rock, con-
sisting entirely of a coarsely crystalline, triclinic, feldspar, apparently labradorite, of
a grayish tinge tending to blue and weathering white. It contains scattered crys-
tals of a mineral resembling sahlite.

Crystalline MetamorpJiiG Rocks. — The tilted and folded strata of these rocks form
for the most part all the ridges we have passed over after leaving Chatau. In the
hills northeast of Shachung are beds belonging to the chloritic series — white triclinic
feldspar, quartz, chlorite, and magnetic iron — a variety of chloritic gneiss.

In the hills traversed by the road from Kalgan to Siwan, and south to Chauchuen,
the predominating rocks are stiU those of the chloritic series. In the hills south of
Siwan I observed chloritic gneiss — orthoclase, chlorite, and quartz — and schist of
nearly pure chlorite. In the mountains between Kalgan and Siwan, another well-
defined variety of chloritic gneiss occurs, in which the feldspar is, in great part,
triclinic. Schists of the hornblendic series also play an important part in this region.
They are composed of a greenish-white triclinic feldspar and hornblende, sometimes
one of these minerals predominating, sometimes the other. The trend of the uplifts
in this region, though irregular, seems to lie between N. and W.

Under the Hwaingan beds near Kiu Hwaingan, the metamorphic schists here
represented by gneiss, lie with a remarkable approximation to conformability with
these younger strata. This gneiss consists of orthoclase and quartz, and is very
poor in mica, excepting on the surface of the slabs into which it breaks.

The Barrier range, where we cross it west of Yangkau, is formed mainly of
schists of the hornblendic series. Among these are extensive strata of a rock com-
posed of black hornblende, with strongly defined prismatic cleavage, abundant gar-
nets, and a little white feldspar. Another rock occurs among these strata composed
of a greenish-white triclinic feldspar associated with a little black mica, quartz, and
hornblende.

The substructure of the plateau, southeast of the Te Hai, is of granulite and
gneiss. The former rock is in places fine grained and schistose with minute gar-
nets, but occurs more generally with a coarser structure, in which it is seen to con-

36 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

sist of white ortlioclase and thin lenticular plates or bands of gray quartz, with
abundant irregular grains of garnet of the size of a pea.

The gneiss of this locality runs through several varieties, all alike rich in garnets.
Gneiss with garnets is also exposed under the volcanic beds at Yingmachuen, north-
east of the Te Hai.

Thus where we cross the Barrier range west of Yangkau, we find the pre-
dominating schists to be of the hornblendic series. In the echelon to the east,
between the Yang Ho and Hwaingan creek, the schists, that underlie the Hwaingan
beds, are mainly of the micaceous series, gneiss being most common. The schists
that are exposed west of the Barrier range, between this and the Te Hai, and
at Yingmachuen, belong, as we have seen, also mostly to the micaceous series,
gneiss predominating and alternating with its congener — granulite. The general
trend of the uplift of these latter schists, in the region between Kiu Hwaingan and
the Te Hai, is northeasterly and parallel to the course of the Barrier range, while
the mean strike of the schists of the hornblendic series, in the main body of tJie
range, seems to be north-northwesterly.

If we glance at the metamorphic region east of Kalgan, we find that its schists
belong to the hornblendic and chloritic series, and here also the mean strike seems
to lie between north and west.

Have we here to do with the metamorphosed strata of two distinct periods t. It
would be hasty to assume that such is the case in the absence of more data, but it
does not seem improbable that the schists of the hornblendic and chloritic series
represent deposits of an earlier age followed by N. W. S. E. foldings of the strata,
while the gneiss and granulite series belong to a later epoch which was followed by
the N. E. S. W. disturbance.

Hwaingan Beds. — These strata, which have already been referred to as resting
almost conformably on gneiss, cover the hills on both sides of the Hwaingan creek,
and occur with an easterly trend and northerly dip at the edge of the hiUs, N. W.
of Siuenhwa (fu). They are made up of layers of compact and hard, gray silicious
limestone, with quartzose sandstones, red and gray argiUites, and quartzite. The
predominating rock would seem to be the limestone. The aggregate thickness is
several hundred feet. The lowest layers are, first, and resting on the gneiss, a fine
grained sandstone, green from thin layers of a green mineral ; over this, sandstone
altered to quartzite ; on this a red argillaceous shale ; finally, silicious limestone
containing numerous thin layers of chert. The alternating beds at the bottom of the
series vary in thickness from six inches to many feet, and in the clifi's seen from the
road, I noticed that they frequently thin out and dovetail into each other, an occur-
rence that seems to indicate frequently changing conditions of level and material.

The Hwaingan beds appear to be the equivalent of the great limestone floor of
the coal-bearing rocks, and their character and thinness would seem to indicate that
they were formed on the borders of the sea in which that great formation originated.
The limestone of the Kiming basin is highly silicified, and its thickness seems to
be much less than that of the same formation where it rises from beneath the great
plain.

Ore^nstone-Porphi/ry Conglomerate. — The beds of this rock were noticed near

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 37

Hiangshui (pu), and also in the coal field of Kiming, where they occur apparently
as members of the coal-bearing series, and at a higher level than the loAver coal
seams.

The fragments of porphyry that form the characteristic feature of this deposit,
have a base that vtiries in texture, from compact to finely crystalline, in color from
dark reddish-brov^n to black, and that effervesces slightly in dilute muriatic acid.
It contains numerous thin, oblong crystals, of a white triclinic feldspar, from one-
oighth to three-quarters of an inch long. Through the base are scattered grains
of a A^hite mineral, apparently a zeolite, and scales of what seems to be ichthy-
ophthalmite.

In places, these fragments make up the greater part of the deposit, and it is then
difiicult to distinguish the inclosed from the inclosing rock. In other places the
blocks are scattered through a finely crystalline, dark reddish-brown rock, that is
irregularly impregnated with a carbonate, and about as hard as compact limestone.
It contains also pieces of an amygdaloidal rock, the cells of which are filled with
calcite and a white zeolite ; blocks of limestone are also found in it.

The general appearance and manner of occurrence of this deposit suggests the
idea that it is of pluto-neptunian origin, and perhaps contemporaneous with the
eruption of the greenstone-porphyry. I will add that I did not meet with dykes
of this porphyry.

Kalgan Trachytic Porphyry. — This rock, and its pluto-neptunian deposits form
the hiRs around Kalgan, and those that, extending S. E. from that city, send out a
spur to the west crossing the road from Siuenhwa.

The porphyry in question is very variable in color, the most common variety
being brown, but all shades occur from pitch-black to Avhite, red, and green. The
texture of the rock is compact, often almost vitreous, but in structure it ranges from
the solid rock of the Kalgan mountain to the cellular and often almost pumiceous
variety of the spur between Kalgan and Siuenhwa.

Crystals of white, transparent orthoclase, or glassy feldspar, are always present,
and are generally so limpid as to take the color of the variety in which they are
imbedded. Small grains "of pellucid quartz occur more rarely, but seem in places
to belong to the primary ingredients, though they are generally secondary. Mica
and hornblende are always absent.

The cells are sometimes long-cylindrical, but more generally flattened, though
lying in the same direction. They are filled with different varieties of quartz, as
cornelian, chalcedony, and a black silex. More rarely they are filled with calcite.

The base of this rock fuses easily before the blowpipe to a white vesicular glass
on the edges.

In intimate connection with this porphyry are strata of a deposit which, from
their character and manner of occurrence, appear to be of pluto-neptunian origin,
and were probably formed contemporaneously with the eruption of the porphyry.
These consist chiefly of a tufa, varying in color from white and gray to purple, and
in hardness between that of chalk and limestone. Its texture is rough and earthen
in appearance. Through the mass are scattered crystals of glassy feldspar, grains
of limpid quartz, and hexagonal scales of dark-brown mica.

38 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Beds of another rock occur, of brick-red and brown colors, and having an earthy
base, with small, brilliant crystals of glassy feldspar and grains of pellucid quartz,
and inclosing small fragments of other rocks.

This deposit is visible on the southern flank of the spur between Kalgan and
Siuenhwa, underlying the terrace loam in horizontal beds (Fig. 7).

At the base of the high hill north of Kalgan the tufa beds are seen to dip under
the porphyry at an angle of about 45° (Fig. 8), and trending west they form a series
of detached hills. On the roads leading to Tutinza, Teutai, and Siwan, they are
traversed by a perfect network of dykes of the porphyry, which rock also caps the
summits of the hills, its vertical cliffs and outstanding dykes giving them a bold and
castellated appearance. ,.

Although no analyses of these rocks have been made, there is, I thinli, little
doubt that we have here to do with a trachytic porphyry and its tufas.

Volcanic Formation of the Plateau. — The southern elevated edge of the Great
Plateau is formed, between the 112th and 115th meridians, of an immense lava bed.
How much further it extends beyond the limits given above, or how large its
breadth may be toward the north, is unknown ; I have only tried to indicate on
the map the region which I observed it to occupy. Its breadth is, in places, not
less than forty miles, and this may be only a fraction of the real width.

The thickness of the formation is, necessarily, very variable as it fills the in-
equalities of what was once a mountainous country. At Hanoor it seems to be not
less than fifteen hundred feet thick, and the same may be said of it in other locali-
ties visited, while we have seen it in places represented by only a thin sheet,
covering the metamorphic schists, where these rise to near the surface.

The rocks of this formation may be classed under two types — the one basaltic,
the other trachytic.

The basaltic rocks were observed more particularly near Hanoor and to the N.
E. of that place. Both compact and finely crystalline varieties occur. They are
generally, especially the latter variety, poor in olivine and contain here and there
crystals of basaltic hornblende.

At many places in the neighborhood of Hanoor, fragments of a cellular variety
occur on the sides of the valleys, in a manner that would seem to indicate, that
there is a horizontal bed of it, marking the plane of contact between two flows of
lava.

The rocks of the other type are throughout crystalline, though often the texture
is very fine, and are generally porous. In color they vary from black to dark gray,
while some varieties, especially when weathered, are light gray. In some instances
hornblende, or augite, enter abundantly into the composition of the rock, but more
generally it seems to consist almost exclusively of white or yellow, triclinic feld-
spar with greasy lustre, partly in tabular crystals, partly massive. Scattered through
this mass are minute specks or grains of a dark to light green mineral, Avith glassy
lustre and conchoidal fracture, harder than the knife when fresh, soft and resinous
in lustre when altered. The feldspar is probably oligoklas. A characteristic
feature of the difi'erent varieties of this rock is the extreme rarity or total absence
of magnetic iron.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 39

This lava seems to belong to the trachydoleritic series. Of its varieties consist
nearly the whole of that portion of the volcanic formation that was traversed by
my route. That it obtained its great development on the surface by successive
flows, is evident from the stratiform structure of this part of the plateau.

The only locality in which I observed an exposed section of comparatively fresh
rock, was in a quarry at Kwantung (pu), on the lower plateau. Here a bed of lava,
crystalline at the bottom of the section, becomes porous toward the top, and, finally,
highly vesicular and highly scoriaceous, this structure marking the top of the flow.
Above this is a bed of more compact lava than the lower. Crevices extending
through both of these beds are filled with a calcareous segregation product.

I am unable to account for the occurrence of this immense lava formation, except-
ing by the supposition that the successive flows took place from an immense crack,
the position of which is perhaps indicated by the great fault line along which the
dislocation took place between the higher and lower plateau.

Terrace Deposit} — The loam of this formation has been frequently mentioned in
the previous pages. It occurs in the valley of every tributary of the Yang Ho and
probab^ also of the Sankang Ho. It exists in the form of terraces between Chatau
and Kiming, and these undoubtedly occur in the valley of the Sankang Ho from
Paungan (chau) to Tatung (fu). Between the Kiming hill and the Papau moun-
tain, a terrace of coarse detritus overlooks the valley of Hweilei (hien), its surface
being several hundred feet above the Yang Ho.

In the valley of Siuenhwa (fu) this deposit seems to have sufi'ered less from
erosion, and rises, generally without terraces, at first gently then rapidly toward the
bordering mountains, filling ravines high up their sides. Our road to the north lay
over this deposit, as we skirted the hills between Siuenhwa and Kalgan, and we
saw it fringing the Kalgan gorge with isolated terraces high above the river.
Leaving this gorge, and ascending the vaUey of the Siwan creek, we found it in
continuous terraces, which even at the Roman mission of Siwan, rise 200 or 300
feet above the creek.

Going southwest from Kalgan, we find this deposit continuous from the vaUey
of Siuenhwa irito that of Hwaingan, and we have already seen how it forms a
plateau capping the ridge between this valley and the Yang Ho at Tienching. It
is also undoubtedly represented along the Yang Ho from this place to Kalgan.

"We have seen it, between Tienching and Yangkau, rising unbroken from the
plain to high up the sides of the Barrier range, and continuous from here, in
terraces, through the defile west of Yangkau into the valley of Kwantung (pu), and
thence around the southern spur of the lower plateau through the valley of Fung-
ching and the deep break in the higher plateau, west of Maanmiau, into the valley
of the Te Hai, where its lofty terraces occupy the eastern part of this great
depression.

The plain of the Kir Noor is formed by this deposit, which also extends through
the valley on the east to the Si Ho tributary of the Yang Ho. As this formation

' For results, mostly negative, of a microscopical examination of the loam of this deposit from dif-
ferent localities, see Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, in Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards' Letter, Appendix 3.

40 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

is found at the head of the water system of this northern branch of the Yang Ho,
it must be continuous, unless washed away, in all the valleys of this basin between ^
the plateau and the Barrier range. Thus the deposit in the valley of the Kir
Noor probably continues, through the break in the plateau to the southeast, into the
valley of the Si Ho, and through this to the Yang Ho. Indeed, judging from the
appearance of the region lying between the plateau and the Barrier range, as seen
from the tower at Ha Noor, this deposit seems to occupy here a large area.

We can trace some of the more important islands that were isolated by the lake
in which this deposit originated. One of these seems to have been that part of the
plateau lying between the Si Ho and the Kir Noor. Another instance is the low
ridge that separates the Yang Ho from the Hwaingan creek, while a much larger
one is the hilly country between the Yang Ho and Sankang Ho.

Thus the body of water in which this deposit was formed consisted of a series of
lakes several hundred feet deep, occupying the valleys of the Sankang Ho, Yang
Ho, and Si Ho, and standing at a level sufficiently high to cover the lower water-
sheds between these streams.

This deposit is everywhere a calcareous loam formed of an almost impalpable
powder, easily crushed between the fingers, and yet so firm that vertical cliffs of it
remain unbroken for many years, which is sufficiently proved by the fact, before
stated, that the inhabitants of the country excavate entire villages in the base of
perpendicular cliffs that rise more than 100 feet above their dwellings. When
breaks occur, the loam falls in immense plates, or tabular masses, leaving a new
vertical face. Near the mountain sides and in the narrow gorges the loam is more
sandy, and contains the gravel and fragments of rocks coming from the immediate
neighborhood, but everywhere else it consists uniformly of an almost impalpable
powder.

A characteristic feature of this loam deposit is its tendency to cleave according
to two vertical planes at right angles to each other, causing it to assume the form of
needles under certain conditions of erosion.

The effects of erosion in this deposit are often very interesting, illustrating in a
marked manner the retrograde formation of ravines. The country is often cut up
by gullies 30 to 70 feet deep, and from 10 to 20 feet wide, with vertical walls. In
these channels wagon roads run for many miles without rising to the plain. In the
valley, between Kwantung (pu) and the Yangkau defile, I crossed a gully 40 or 60
feet deep, and not more than four feet wide, having the same breadth aU the way
down, and which, with these dimensions, follows a tortuous course for more than a
mile. In the same vaUey another ravine of this kind, only eight or nine feet wide,
and not less than 100 feet deep, compelled us to make a detour of over a mile.

Wherever a cliff of this deposit presents itself the beginning of this action is
visible. The surface drainage of a small neighboring area of the plain being con-
centrated toward one point on the edge of the cliff, cuts, in its fall, a channel from
top to bottom, and this, with each succeeding rain, works its way backward toward
the mountains. As the erosion progresses the sides of the gullies offer new starting
points for tributary ravines.

We have here, in the softest material that can support such action, a repetition

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 41

of the process which is causing the retrogression of Niagara falls, and which pro-
bably plays an important part in aU valley erosion.

In intimate connection with this lo3,m-deposit, Stands the formation of the
numerous isolated lakes met with on the route through the region we are now
considering. I have frequently alluded to bars, or low watersheds, formed of the
terrace-deposit, and stretching across valleys, causing the drainage to flow in oppo-
site directions. These form the barriers to which almost every lake or pond, that
has been mentioned, owed its existence after the retreat of the main body of the
great inland sheet of fresh water.

We have seen that in those broad valleys where the lake-deposit has not been
much subjected to erosion, its surface is not horizontal throughout, but rather,
adapting itself to the generd surface of the ground, or ancient valley, on which it
lies, it rises from the centre to high on the sides of the surrounding mountains.
Now when the sides of a valley approach each other and form a gorge connecting
two broad enlargements of the valley, the terrace-deposit rises from the centres of
both these basins, till it fills the gorge to about the same height as that at which it
stands on the mountain sides around the basins. The height attained by the lake
deposit in these narrow places is, in almost every instance, due to the fact that the
usual deposit of loam was augmented by the large amount of detritus from the
bordering hills.

As the large inland body of water disappeared and sank to the level of each of
these bars, the sheet behind this remained isolated. In some instances the lakes
thus formed have found outlets by cutting through their bars, but this was only
where they received an important supply of water, derived from an extensive drainage
area. In aU other cases the barriers have sufiered coniparatively little from erosion.

Since their isolation these lakes have diminished in size, till they now possess but
a small fraction of the volume necessary to fiU their separate basins to a level with
the surface of the inclosing bar.

I now propose to consider briefly the conclusions which the facts observed in this
part of northern China seem to warrant.

The oldest stratified rocks seen throughout this region are highly metamorphosed
and appear to belong to two distinct epochs ; the hornblendic and chloritic series of
schists representing the older, and the gneiss and granulite series, the younger.

After the deposition of the older metamorphic strata there seems to have been a
disturbance producing folds with a trend between N. and W. Disturbances had
also occui'red by which the ridge between Nankau and Chatau was elevated and
again depressed before the deposition of the great limestone formation, for the beds
of this latter rest here immediately on the granite. Northwest of this ridge the
limestone would seem to have been deposited in a shallower part of the sea, the
character of the Hwaingan beds — which appear to represent the limestone — indi-
cating the neighborhood of land.

After the deposition of the limestone strata these were traversed by the eruptive
porphyries of Hiamaling, the debris of which form the chief ingredient of the con-
glomerate lying between the limestone and the coal-bearing series of Chaitang.

The "next marked event was the forming of the coal-bearing rocks.

6 May, 1866.

42 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Although the disturbance, which was to produce the N. E. S. W. system of folds,
appears to have been in operation before the deposition of the limestone, it was not
until after the completion of the coal-bearing series, that this action cumulated in
the great revolution by which the eastern portion of the continent received its out-
line, and the coal-bearing strata and older rocks were folded and prepared for the
almost universal metamorphism that has affected them.^

An immense hiatus now occurs, for filling which there are no observed facts.
This extends over the whole time that passed between the deposition of the coal-
bearing rocks and the period of volcanic action in Southern Mongolia.

During this period occurred the eruption of the Kalgan trachytic porphyry and
the deposition of its pluto-neptunian beds, and the outflowing on a gigantic scale,
along the 41st parallel, of trachydoleritic and basaltic'lavas.

The next phenomenon, of which the effects are visible, was the great dislocation
by which at least the southern edge of the Mongolian plateau was raised. Near
Fungching we have seen the high escarpment of the table-land, caused by this
fault, trending away in a E. N. E. W. S. W. direction. If we produce this line
toward the E, N. E. we shall find that it cuts the highest known point of the
southern edge of the plateau — that near Ha Noor. The action of springs, that
seem to rise along this fault line, is visible in the calcareous deposits seen near
Maanmiau, and on the lower plateau near Fungching.

This great zone of volcanic action seems, as such, to mark the coast line of an
extensive sea or ocean lying to the north, and it is an interesting fact that it lies
nearly in a line with the axis of the Tienshan, in which we have every reason to
believe that volcanoes stiU exist, though perhaps only as solfataras.

The dislocation by which the great escarpment of the plateau was formed, deter-
mined the depression between the table-land and the mountains south of it, which
was to be occupied by the lakes already mentioned.

Before the deposition of the terrace deposit, the edge of the plateau had already
been subjected to extensive erosion, by which great bays and channels were cut into
it, and the valleys of the Te Hai and Kir Noor formed.

We come now to an interesting question — the origin of the chain of lakes so
often referred to in the preceding pages, and of the deposit of loam by which they
have recorded their former existence.^

That this deposit was formed in fresh water is shown by the presence of the
shells found in the terrace of the Te Hai. The uniform character of the loam in
the different basins, and in all parts of the same basin, its great extent, and the
fineness of the material of which it consists, are conditions which prove that it is
not of local origin, or derived from the detritus of the neighboring shores, but that
it was brought into the lakes by one or more large rivers which must have drained
an area of great extent. Now throughout the region in question, the only rivers
are those of the Yang Ho and Sankang Ho basin, and, independently of the fa.ct
that these streams drain a very small area, the valley systems of these were almost
entirely occupied by the lakes.

See Chap. VII. » See Map XI, on PL 5.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 4,3

Indeed the only direction from which a river of any importance could have come,
was from the west, in which case it could only have been the Hwang Ho (Yellow
river). Let us examine into the possibility of the existence of a communication
between the valley of the Yellow river and the lake basins. When I was in the
valley of the Te Hai, I saw distinctly that the break in the plateau continued to
the W. S. W. as far as the eye could reach. A low, hilly country, much below the
level of the plateau, appeared to shut in the valley at the distance of about twenty
miles from the lake. Now on Klaproth's large map of Central Asia, on which, so
far as my experience goes, the streams of this region are laid down with a remark-
i able approximation to accuracy, a branch of the Tourgen GoP is given as rising in
the very region occupied by the low hiUs observed by me. A native map of the
province of Shansi, not always correct in its details, represents this- stream as rising
in the Te Hai.

Thus, I think, there is little doubt that a communication exists between the val-
ley of the Te Hai and that of the Tourgen Gol, sufficiently depressed to be below
the surface level of the terrace deposits. The Tourgen Gol is a tributary of the
Yellow river, and if the watershed between the. Te Hai and this river was below
the level of the ancient lakes, these must have occupied part of the valley system
of the north bend of the Yellow river, and must have left a corresponding deposit.

Now, although we have no information concerning the occurrence of the terrace
deposit in the valley of the Tourgen Gol, we have direct testimony with regard to
its existence over a large area in the land of the Ortous — the desert region inclosed
by the northern bend of the YeUow river. Abbe Hue passed through this country
on his way to Tibet, and describes it as a flat, sandy desert, frequently cut up by
deep ravines, in the sides of which he observed, in one place, dwellings excavated
in the same manner as those at Siwan.^

Indeed, aU the information we possess concerning this region goes to show that
it has been the basin of a great lake, which once extended from the northern bank
of the YeUow river southwards to the mountains crowned by the Great Wall.^

Thus I think there can be little doubt that the terrace deposits, so common in
the system of the Yang Ho, were precipitated in a chain of connected lakes, extend-
ing from Yenkingchau, N. N. W. of Peking, to near Ninghia (fu) in Kansuh, a

* Haishui of the Chinese. The valley of Tourgen Gol is probably also connected with the valley
of the Kir Noor; see p. 29.

" "When the Chinese establish themselves in Tartary, if they find mountains the earth of which is
hard and solid, they excavate caverns in their sides. These habitations are cheaper than houses, and
less exposed to the irregularities of the seasons. They are generally well laid out ; on each side of
the door there are windows giving sufficient light to the interior ; the walls, the ceiling, the furnaces,
the kaiig, everything inside is coated with plaster so firm and shining that it has the appearance

of stucco. These caves have the advantage of being warm in winter and cool in summer

These dwellings were no novelty to us, for they abound in our mission of Siwan. However, we had
never seen any so well constructed as these of the Ortous." — Abbe Hue, Travels in Tartary, etc.,
Yol. I, p. 180.

' Compare Ritter's Erdknnde. Asien, especially Vol. I, p. 153 — 160 ; also Hue, -Vol. I, p. 2.S5 ;
and Travels of Gerbillon, in Du Halde.

44 GEOLOGIC A LRESEARCHESIN

distance of nearly 500 miles ; and that this sediment was brought by the Yellow
river and the tributaries of its upper course.

We have seen that the immediate cause of the formation of these lake basins is
probably to be sought in the dislocation forming the plateau wall to the north of
them, the descent of the land previous to that event having probably been toward
the Gobi, in which direction also the Yellow river flowed, if it existed at that time.

The waters of the Yellow river filled the chain of basins thus inclosed between the
plateau and the mountains forming the southern wall. There are now two channels
by which the drainage of all this area finds its way to the Yellow sea, the Yang Ho
gorge in the far east which opens on to the great plain west of Peking, and the*
deeply cut channel through which the Yellow river flows between Shansi and Shetisi;
Whether both of these outlets existed during the lake periddj or only one of them,
is a question of much interest in a physical-geographical point of view, for if all,
or part, of the waters of the Yellow river flowed through the Yang Ho gorge, they
found their way to the sea through the lower Pei Ho, a stream with which the
Yellow river has united within historical times, after having flowed in an entirely
different course, viz. its present one, in part, to the west and south of Shansi.^

The Yellow river flows, from Pauteh (chau) to the mouth of the Wei river, nearly
300 miles, almost due south, traversing, in deep gorges, two important mountain
ranges which seem to be great anticlinal ridges of the limestone, and several minor
ones. Considering these things, the regularity of its course is striking when com-
pared with the winding courses common to rivers that cross parallel ranges, and the
inclosed longitudinal valleys. The thought is suggested that the course of this
channel may have been determmed by a great crack.

In connection with this subject, I will add that it is certainly remarkable that
the Chinese traditions of two great floods, often cited in the west, toward proving
the universal belief in a general deluge, all point to this region. The earliest of
these traditions is allegorical and goes back to a time, abbut 3100 B. C, when the
yet barbarous founders of the nation were still living west of Shansi. "Kingkung
fought with Chwanchio for the empire of the world ; in his rage he struck, with his
horn, the mountain Puchiau, which supports the pillars of heaven, and the bands
of the earth were torn asunder. The heavens fell to the northwest, and the earth
received a great crack in the southeast."^

The other tradition, preserved in the Shuking of Confucius, refers to a later date,
and partakes of a more historical character. According to this account,^ there was
a great flood in the 61st year of the reign of Yao (2297 B. C); the waters of the
Yellow river mingling with those of the Yangtse Kiang, and threatening to overflow
the mountains. A skilful engineer, Pekuen, worked nine years, without success,

* See Chap. V

" Klaproth, Ritter's Asien, I, 158. Klaproth, in Asia Polyglotta, p. 28, comparing the dates of
Hebrew, Brahminical, and Chinese traditions of deluges, obtains: Samaritan text, B. C. 3044,
Brahminical date, B. C. 3101, Chinese, B. C. 3082.

' Ritter, Asien, I, p. 159. Compare Deguignes, Gesch. der Mongolen, Einleit. p. 4 ; and Mailla,
Histoire generale de la Chine.

OHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 4S

to effect a drainage ; an object that was not accomplished until ten years afterward
under the great Yu, by widening the channel of the river between Shansi and
Shensi, especially in the gorges of Lungmun, Hukau, and Shanmun.

Mailla, one of the Jesuit missionaries employed in preparing the map of the em-
pire, visited these localities, and relates that he saw with astonishment the remains
of this gigantic enterprise.

However this may be, whether the works of Yu belong to the region of History
or of Allegory, we have here two traditions, the first pointing to a convulsion caus-
ing a great flood, and perhaps also forming the channel, between Shansi and Shensi ;
while the second evidently refers to an immense overflow of waters coming from the
upper covu-se of the Yellow river, and perhaps facilitated by obstructions in the
narrow channel.

A gentleman, well versed in Chinese literature, informed me that, according to
native authorities, the valley of the Yang Ho, between Chatau and Kiming, the
easternnlost of the ancient lake-basins, was once occupied by a lake which was
drained, finally, by the Yang Ho gorge. Considering this, and the accounts of the
Shuking, it is not, I think, impossible, that these traditions refer to the last events
in the history of the lake period, and that within the memory of the Chinese people,
a part at least of this great body of fresh water was stiU in existence, if, indeed, the
formation of the channel between Shansi and Shensi, on which the retreat of the
main body depended, does not also fall within this limit.

46 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

CHAPTER V.^

THE DELTA-PLAIN, AND THE HISTORICAL CHANGES IN THE
COURSE OF THE YELLOW RIVER.

The extent of the great plain of Eastern China is pretty well known from native
and Jesuit authorities. It lies in a semicircle around the mountainous peninsula of
Shantung. Its outer limit, as approximately given on the Jesuit map, begins in
the department of Yungping (fu), and, running west, keeps south of the Great
Wall till Changping (chau) N. W. of Peking. Thence, remaining east of the
southern branch of the Great Wall, it follows a general S. S. W. course, passing
westward of Chingting (fu) and Kwangping (fu), till it reaches the upper waters
of the Wei river. Here it turns westward iato Hwaiking (fu), and crosses the
Yellow river in that department.

From the right bank of this river it trends a little east of south, passing west of
Jiining (fu) (Honan), and then turning eastward it continues south of Kwang (chau)
and north of Luhngan (chau) in Luchau (fu). Here an arm of the plain, in which
lies the Tsau lake, stretches southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtse, and
continues eastward on the right side of this river, occupying the region between
the river and Hangchau bay. A hilly region, in the centre of which is Nanking,
rises, like a large island from the plain, to the north of this arm.

The Shantung boundary of the plain begins at Laichau (fu), and after describing
a great bow to the south it turns west at Shukwang (hien), and running thence to
Changtsing (hien), in Tsinan (fu), it turns to the south and around to the southeast.
Keeping this course it remains nearly parallel to the Imperial canal till the Kiangsu
frontier, which it foUows to the sea.

The greater part of the area included within these limits is a plain which seems
to descend very gently toward the sea, and to be very generally below the high
water level of the Hwang Ho. It is the delta of the Hwang Ho, and in part also
of the Yangtse Kiang, and is remarkable for its semi-annular shape, half inclosing,
as it does, the mountain-mass of Shantung.

The city of Peking stands on a raised border of loam, sand, clay, and gravel,
which forms the northwestern skirt of the delta-lowlands, and seems to extend
southward fringing the mountains along its western side. The name of the Talo
lake (Ta great, and lo plateau or raised plain) seems to refer to such a border, and

* See Maps I— X, on Plates 4 and 5.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 47

in the article on Kichau in the Yukung it is said that " the Lo (plateau) was
drained."^

The fact, also, that in historical times none of the arms of the Hwang Ho have
approached the western mountain border of the plain, both north and south of
Kaifung, within a less distance than from ten to fifty miles, seems to point to the
existence of a recent sea margin, which would be perhaps due rather to the detritus
brought down by local streams than to the delta deposit of the Hwang Ho.

All the important changes in the lower course of the Hwang Ho have been re-
corded from early times by Chinese historians, and their documents and maps form
the most complete history we possess of the wanderings of any river.

The Yukungchuchi (Peking, 1705), written by Chin HuWei, contains a series
of maps in which these changes are laid down for a period of more than 3000 years.
M. Biot has given the substance of that part of this work that relates to the Hwang
Ho, in a carefully prepared paper.^ I have, however, thought the subject to be
one of sufficient interest to warrant the reproduction of the maps of Chin Hu "Wei,
with such explanations as will render them intelligible, without going beyond the
limits of a work that is intended to give only my own contributions to the physio-
graphy of Eastern Asia. For farther information I must refer the reader to M.
Blot's paper, of which I shall make use in explaining the maps. ■«■

In the Yultung, a chapter of the Shuking classic of Confucius, it is said that the
course of the Hwang Ho was regulated by the Great Yu. Whether the works of
Yu are to be understood as the labor of a single man, or as the results of the enter-
prise of a rising colony during several generations, there seems to be little doubt
that more than 2000 years before the beginning of the Christian era the Chinese
had brought this turbulent river under their control, by an immense system of dykes,
and had begun to cultivate the extensive marshes of the delta plain.

Map No. 1 of the series, on plate 4, represents the course of the Hwang Ho
as it existed, in the main, from the time of Yu down to 602 B. C.

Map No. 2 represents the course resulting from the first great change, that of the
fifth year of the reign of Ting Wang (Chow dynasty), 602 B. C.

Map No. 3 serves to illustrate a passage in the writings of the poet Sse Ma Tsien,
recording a diversion to the east and southeast. The easterly course, forming the
Pien river, seems to have been the earliest recorded tendency of the river to follow
its recent course. The opening of the first channels in this direction is given as
occurring in 361 and 340 B. C.

The diversion, indicated on this map, through lake Yungtse to the southwest,
happened, according to Sse Ma Tsien, towards the end of the Chow dynasty, during
the third century before Christ. *

Map No. 4 represents changes that occurred under Wutih (Han dynasty), about
132 B. C, when a great overflow toward the northeast took place, the river trending
toward Kai (chau) in Chihli. At this time several arms were formed between

» B. Biot, Sur le chapitre Yukung, Journ. Asiatique, 1842.

" Sur les cliangements du cours inferieur du fleuve Jaune, Journ. Asiat. 1843.

4:8 .GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN.

Taming (fu) and. the sea, which are also given. Pieviaus to this, tuider iWentih,
about 160 B. C, there was a breach formed at Yentsin near Kaifung. ■

Map No. 5 gives the second great change in the, course of the "river of..Yu,"
which occurred about 11 B. C.,. and was caused apparently by the blocking up of
the channels leading to the Pei Ho.'

Map No. 6 shows the channels as they existed during the Tang, and five succeed-
ing dynasties, till the beginning of the Sung dynasty.

A note on the map of Chin Hu Wei says, " the course of the river remained the

same from the time of Ming Ti (Tung Han dynasty) A. D. 70 till under

Jin Tsung, A, D. 1034, when a break occurred at Hunglung, and another, fourteen
years later, A. D. 1048, at Changwu, and the river of the Han and the Tang was
entirely destroyed. The map covers a period of 977 years."

Map No. 7 (PI. 5) represents the courses, under the Sung dynasty, from A. D.
1048 to A. D. 11,94, a period of 146 years.

Map No. 8 records the course during the Kin dynasty. All the former channels
appear blocked up, and the river, after entering Lake Lo, near the summit-level of
the present Imperial canal, is seen to flow off to the N. E. through the Tatsing
river, and to the S. E. through the Sz' river. Lake Lo appears from the observa-
tion of Clarke Abel, and from Chinese measurements, to be about. 15(0 feet above
the sea.

Map No. 9 shows the condition of the river under the Yuen and Ming dynasties,
together with the Grand canal, a condition which seems to have remained substan-
tially the same tUl within the last ten or fifteen years.

In early times the Yangtse entered the sea by three arms called the Sankiang,
i. e., "Three Rivers;" and Chin Hu Wei has given a map of these, founded on the
opinions of early authorities. I have indicated them on map No. 1 of the series.

A glance at the nine maps of the delta courses wiU. show how widely separated
have been the limits of divergence of the arms of the Hwang Ho, within the past
3D00 years, A mighty river, ever turbulent, subject yearly to an enormous increase
in volume, an increase regulated rather by the amount of precipitation in the distant
Kwenlun mountains*, than by the local climate, it has ever been the terror of the
countless millions through whose midst it flows.

From the earliest times an immense force has been at work to keep it from break-
ing through its dykes, or, when this has happened, to guide and retain it between
new embankments. The quantity of solid material carried by the river and deposited
along its course, is so great that its bed is rapidly raised, and appears to have been,
-before the last change, higher than the adjacent country.

Biot says, "it is certain that the bed of the river, from Hwaiking to the sea, is
higher than the adjoining country."

Several times, during the great wars that have preceded the downfall of dynas-
ties, this condition of the river has been turned to account as a weapon of offence.
Breaking the embankments has been made to accomplish, almost instantaneously,
by the destruction of hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, conquests that had been
delayed by years of brave resistance.

From the earliest time of colonization on the delta-plain, the task of keeping the

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. ^ 49

Hwang Ho witliin its bed has been the' constant care of the rulers of China, both
when the country was united under one man, and when it has been subdivided into
petty states. In the latter case in the treaties between states bordering on the
Hwang Ho, the clauses regarding the regulation of that river appear to have been
the most important and the most sacredly observed.

One of the most striking results of the official corruption that becomes general
during the decay of a dynasty is the breaking loose of this great stream, as soon as
the means for maintaining its embankments are misapplied.

The devastation caused by these overflows is awful beyond description. The
loss of life is very great, and the destruction of the crops that form the means of
support of millions, produces famine and the overrunning, by starving hordes, of
the more fortunate districts of the adjacent country. The anarchy that rules in
this struggle for life is almost beyond the conception of those who inhabit lands
where the population is much below the capacity of the country, or which are
easily reached by foreign supplies.

Within the last fifteen years one of these great changes has taken place, apparently
from the same cause and with the same effect as above indicated. Instead of empty-
ing into the Hwang Hai, or Yellow Sea, the Hwang Ho now has its mouth in the
Gulf of Pechele, which it enters through the Tatsing river. The old mouth of the
river was found to be dry in 1858,

According to information furnished to the Kev. Mr. Edkins, by officials of the
Board of Foreign Affairs at Peking, the principal break occurred at Fungpeh (ting)
in Siichau (fu), the waters flowing away to the N. E. In Tsinan (fu), the capital
of Shantung, the waters of the Tatsing river are increased to six times their original
volume by the contributions of the H'Cpang Ho.

In 1863 the river had not yet determined a channel, but its waters were spread
over large tracts of country, and the city of Wuting (fu), nearly sixty miles north
of Tsinan (fu), was almost inaccessible.

The present course of the Hwang Ho is indicated, so far as known, on Map
No. 10.

Owing to the great quantity of material brought down by this river, and to the
absence of great oceanic currents, that might, if present, interfere with its deposi-
tion, the delta is rapidly increasing in size, and the adjoining seas are becoming
shallower.^

Probably nowhere can the rate of growth of deltas be better studied than in
China. Cities that were built on the delta plain of the Hwang Ho several thousand
years since are stiU in existence, together with the archives of their history. In
the cases of those that were built near the sea, the distances from this are given ;
and frequent mention is jnade of tovras, mounds, and natural hiUs, washed by the
sea, within historical times, vi^ich are now far inland.

Thus, in B, C, 220, the town Putai is said to have been 1 li west of the sea-shore,
while in A,D. 1730 it was 140 Ji inland,^ a yearly increase of 100 feet, more or less.

> Barrow estimated the hourly discharge of sediment at 2,000,000 cubic feet.
" Fangyuchiyau ; Chihli.

7 May, 1866.

50 . GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

according to the length of the li. Hienshuikau (on the Pei Ho, in long. 117° 32' E.)
is said to have been on the sea-shore in A. D. 500,^ and is at present about eighteen
miles distant, an increase of about 81 feet per annum.

Along the southern shore of the gulf of Pechele the yearly increase N, E. of Shuk-
wang since B. C. 220, seems to have been not more than 30 feet.

The sea-shore, according to local tradition, vras near the present location of
Tientsin (fu) during the Han dynasty.

It is also recorded that under the reign of the Han, the Hwang Ho entered the
sea at Changwu, near the present Tsinghai.^

* Fangyuchiyau ; Chihli. " Ibid.

CHINA, MONaOLIA, AND JAPAN. 51

CHAPTER VI.i

ON THE GENERAL GEOLOGY OF CHINA PROPER; A GENERAL-
IZATION BASED ON OBSERVATIONS, AND ON THE MINERAL
PRODUCTIONS AND THE tJONFIGDRATION OF THE SURFACE.

It is with much misgiving that I begin even an attempt at a general sketch of
the geology of China, The great extent of the coimtry, the very limited area
examined geologically, the, mostly, very general character of the observations made
within that area, and our ignorance of the geological structure of the surrounding
countries, render the attempt more than dangerous.

The sketch, and the map accompanying it, make no claims to accuracy, but I
hope to show by means of them the leading features of the structure of the country,
as deduced from observations in parts of the coimtry and from mineral productions.
The fact that hardly any two maps of China resemble each other in the geographi-
cal names ; and that on most of them many of the names that I must use are not
given, renders a sketch-map necessary, and this is to be regarded as a colored guide
to the generalizations, and not as a geological map of the country.

The data on which the generaKzations are founded consist in : —

My own observations.

The observations of other European travellers.

And in the information obtained from Chinese authorities.

The limits of my own observations have been already given ; they were confined
to the valley of the Yangtse Kiang, from the sea to near the eastern boundary of
Sz'chuen, and to the northern departments of the provinces of Chihli and Shansi.
The results of this portion of the data have been given in the preceding pages.

The observations of European travellers have furnished, so far as my knowledge
of them goes, but very little information on the geology of the country, and even
this is often vague and evidently ixicorrect. I have thought it worth while to give,
in a condensed form, such information as I have been able to extract from this
source,

Nanking to Ca/nton? — Gray, compact limestone is quarried back of Nanking.
Siaukushan [Little Orphan Island], near the mouth of Poyang lake, is pudding-

« See Map, PI. 6.

" Clarke Abel. Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from the
Country, 1816— 181T, etc. Lend. 1818.

52 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

stone ("?). The high Liushan [west of Poyang lake and south of Kiukiang] are. of
fine-grained granite and micaceous schist poor in quartz, in vertical strata trending
N. E. S. W.^ On the left bank of the Kan river, above Kihngan (fu), there is sand-
stone. Between Wanngan (hien) and Kanchau (fu) there is dark gray schist rest-
ing on granite. Black slate occurs between Kanchau (fu) and Nanngan (fu*). The
summit of the Meiling pass is of argillaceous sandstone, immediately south of which
begins limestone. Between Nanhiung (fu) and Shauchau (fu) the limestone ceases
and is followed by red sandstone with coal seams. Nearer to Shauchau (fu) there
is limestone resting on a breccia of limestone, calcareous red sandstone, and quartz,
the whole cemented by limestone. Near Yingtiug (hien) there is grayish-black
limestone in which is the cavern of Kwangsin. HiUs of grayish-yellow, argillaceous
sandstone, with veins of quartz, occur about half way between Yiugting (hien) and
Hingyuen (hien) ; [on Abel's route map the wBole country between these two places
is represented as sandstone.] The coal brought to Abel from the tovms on the
Yangtse resembled cannel coal, that in Kiangsi "bovey" coal.

At Fuhutang (on the Kan river), soon after leaving the Poyang lake, there are
vertical coal pits. The fragments at the bottom of the hill where these are situated
appeared to be pure slate.^

Canton to Eankau through Hunan? — The rocks noticed on the North river (Peh
kiang) were red sandstone and limestone. Four mUes inland from Pangkwang
there are coal mines, belonging to the government, 40 to 50 feet deep. Eed sand-
stone occurs along the boundary between Kwangtung and Hunan on the Meiling
pass. Red sandstone occurs near Shachulung, a coal village on the north slope of
the Nanling near the end of the Meiling pass. A few miles below Laiyang (hien)
there are Umestone quarries. At Pingtan, a few miles below Siangtan (hien), there
are limekilns and quarries of limestone. Sandstone is quarried at Kingtsewan,
about twelve miles below Changsha (fu).

Chehhiang and Fuhlcien} — About ten to fifteen miles west of Yenchau (fu) (Cheh-
kiang) are limestone mountaius, and a few miles farther west beautiful green granite.
Near Hwuichau (fu) (Nganhwui) the hiUs consist of a red sandstone resting on
slate. Near Kiichau (fu) (Chehkiang) there is red, calcareous sandstone. The road
on the pass between the Shangyang river and the Chehkiang river is paved with
granite. The road at the N. W. foot of the Bohea mountaius leading from Ho-
kau, in Kwangsin (fu) (Kiangsi), into Fuhkien, is pave'd with granite. The rocks
at Wuishan, on the east side of the Bohea mountains in Fuhkien " consist of clay
slate, in which occur, embedded iu the form of beds or dykes, quartz rock, while
granite of a deep black color, owing to the mica which is of a fine deep bluish black,
cuts through them in all directions." "Resting on this clay slate are sandstone
conglomerates formed principally of angular masses of quartz, held together by a
calcareous basis, and alternating with these conglomerates there is a fine, calcareous.

* Ritter, Asien, III, p. 675, citing Ellis' Journal, p. 342, and Clarke Abel, p. 16T.
" Ellis' Journal, II, p. 101.

' Rev. Mr. Bonny. A Trip from Canton to Slianghai. Pamphlet. Shanghai, 1861.

* Portune. Tea Districts, etc.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 53

granular sandstone in which beds of dolomitic limestone occur." "Granite forms
the summits of most of the priacipal moimtains in this part of the country."

Canton to tlie Sea} — A gray-wacke, containing much quartz, forms the hills near
Canton. Underneath this rock is red sandstone, " varying from a bright red, fine-
grained rock to a coarse conglomerate, full of large pebbles of quartz." These strata
dip to westward. Granite occurs below the sandstone and crops out more and more,
as the river approaches the sea. Near the coast the granite forms peaks 1,200 to
2,000 feet high, which continue as barren islets toward the island of Hainan.

Kingyvsn (fu) in Kwangsi."^ — The marble mountains south of Kingyuen (fu)
give rise to innumerable large springs, and even rivers disappear in them to come
again to light after following long subterranean courses. The many colored varie-
ties of marble of this region are celebrated, and the marble formation (Marmor
Gebirge) seems to predominate.

Salt Wells of Sz'^chuen.^ — M. Imbert has given a vivid description of these, and
although it has often been quoted, it is sufficiently interesting to be inserted here.*
These are at Wutung, in the department of Kiating (fu) , and near the city Kiating,

"There are some ten thousand of these springs, or artificial brinepits, in a space
about ten leagues long and four or five leagues broad. The Chinese effect the
boring of these pits with time and extreme patience ; yet with less expense than
with us. They have not the art of working rocks by mining (blasting 1) ; yet all
the pits are constructed in the rock. These pits are commonly frorn 1,500 to 1,800
feet (French) deep, and are only five or at the most six inches in diameter. These
little wells, or tubes, are perpendicular, and as polished as glass. Sometimes the
entire depth is not continued in solid rock, but the workmen encounter beds of
shale, coal, etc. ; then the operation becomes more difficult, and sometimes fruitless ;
for as these substances do not offer a uniform resistance, it sometimes occurs
that the shafts lose their perpendicularity ; but these are rare cases. When the
rack is favorable, they advance at the rate of two feet in the twenty-four hours. It
requires at least three years to sink one pit." A pit of this kind costs about 1,000
taels of silver.* " The mode of pumping is exceedingly simple, yet laborious ; being
effected chiefly by manual labor. The water is very briny, giving, by evaporation,
a fifth or more, and sometimes one-fourth, of salt."

" The air, which escapes from these pits, is very inflammable. If a torch is pre-
sented to the mouth of the shaft, the gas ignites, with a great column of fire, from
twenty to thirty feet in height, exploding with the rapidity of powder." This gas
is conducted through bamboo tubes to the saltpans under which it is burned to effect
the evaporation. " Sometimes, in boring the salt pits, very thick beds of coal are
passed through at a depth of several hundred feet." " In sinking these wells a
bituminous oil [petroleum], which burns in water, is commonly found at a depth
of about 1,000 feet. They collect daily four or five jars of 100 pounds each. This

' Chinese Repository, III, p. 81. " Ritter, Asian, III, '758.

" Imbert, Annales de I'association pour la propagation de la foi. Vol. Ill, p. 369.
* The extract given here is taken from R. C. Taylor, Statistics of Coal, Phil. 1848, p. 660, with
some remarks from Chinese Repository, XIX, p. 325. * '1 Tael = $1.33.

54 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

oil has a very powerful odor, and is used to light the area where the pits and cop-
pers of salt are concentrated,"

" The largest fire wells are those at Tselieoutsing, forty leagues from Wutung.
Tselieoutsing, situated in the mountains, on the banks of a small river, also contains
salt pits, bored in the same manner as at Wutung. In one valley are seen four pits
which give a flame, to an amount truly frightful, but no water. These pits, for the
most part, have previously afforded salt water; which water being drained, the
proprietors, twelve years since, caused them to be sunk even to three thousand feet
and more of depth, hoping to procure an abundant supply of water. AU this was
in vain ; but there suddenly gushed forth an enormous column of air which brought
with it large, dark particles. These did not resemble smoke, but the vapor of a
glo^ving furnace. This air escaped with a roaring and frightful rumbling, which
was heard at a great distance. The orifices of the pits are surmounted by a waU
of stone six or seven feet high, for fear that, inadvertently, or through malice, some
one might apply fire to the opening of the shaft. This misfortune happened in
August last. As soon as the fire was applied to the surface of the well, it made a
frightful explosion, and even something was felt approaching to an earthquake.
The flame, which was about two feet high, leaped over the surface of the earth
without burning anything. Four men devoted themselves and carried an enormous
stone over the orifice of the pit. Immediately it was thrown up into the air ; three
of the men were scorched, the fourth escaped; neither water nor dirt would extin-
guish the fire. Finally, after fifteen days of stubborn work, a quantity of water
was brought over the neighboring mountain, a lake or dam was formed, and the
water was suddenly let loose, which extinguished the fire. This was at an expense
of about thirty thousand francs."'^

Fossils from China? — Mr. Davidson, after examining a collection of shells sent by
Dr. Lockhart to the British Museum, came to the conclusion, " that the specimens
belonged to eight Devonian species, seven of which are common to several European
localities, among which we may mention Ferques and N^hon (France), Belgium,
and the Eifel, but they are not found all existing together in any one of these
localities. In external aspect they most resemble those from Ferques, in which
locality, however, neither the Gyrtia Murchisoniana nor the Rhynchonella Hanburii
have been as yet discovered," If to these we add the other two described by M. de
Koninck,-' the total number of Chinese Devonian types now known will amount to
ten species : viz., 3 of Spirifer, 2 of EhynchoneUa, 1 Productus, 1 Crania, 1 Cornu-
lites, I Spirorbis, and 1 Aulopora. The species determined by Mr. Davidson were
as foUows : Spirifer disjunctus, Sowerhy ; Cyrtia Murchisoniana, De Koninch ; Rhyn-
choneUa Hanburii, Davidson ; Productus subaculeatus, Murchison ; Crania obsoleta,
Goldfuss ; Spirorbis omphalodes, Goldfuss (?) ; Cornulites epithonia, Goldfuss(?);

* Compare Humboldt, Asie Centrale, II, p. 521, 525.

» On some Fossil Brachiopodes, etc. T. Davidson. Quart. Journ. Geolog. See., IX, 1853, p. 353.
' "Notice sur deux espfeces Brachiopodes du Terrain Paleozoique de la Chine." Bulletin de
I'Academie Roy. des Sciences, Lettres et Beaux Arts de Belgiqne. 1846. XIII, pt. 2, p. 415.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 65

Aulopora tubaeformis, Goldfuss ; Spirifer Chechiel, De Koninch; Ehynchonella
Yuenamensis, De Koninch.

Some fossil brachiopods from Gouchouc, twenty leagues W. S. W. from Patang
on the Kinsha Kiang, and near the Tibet-Sz'chuen frontier, were determined by Mj
Guyerdet^ as follows : Terebratula cuboides, Sow, carb. and Devon., figured in
Descript. des Anim. foss. de la Belgique, DeKoninck, 1842—1844, p. 285. Tere-
bratula reticularis, LinnS, Devonian ; figured in Russia and the Ural mountains :
Murchison and v. Keyserling, II, 90. Terebratula pugnus, Martin; figured in
Sowerby, Conchyl. pi, ccccxcvii. Mr. Woodward has described an Orthoceras from
China.^

Hoshan {Fire Mountains). — These are without doubt burning seams of coal. One
of these burning mountains, called' Hoyau, occurs 55 li N. W. of Kwangling in
Tatung (fu), Shansi.*

Sir E.. I. Murchison speaks of some Upper Devonian fossils, from Sz'chuen, given
to him by Dr. W. Loekhart, as " identical in specific character with Spirifer Ver-
neuUiij S. Archiaci, Productus subaculeatus, and other European forms."*

I was told by the Eev. Mr. Edkins that the island of Situngting in the Taihu
lake (west of Shanghai) contains fossHiferous limestone.

In the following table are given a large number of localities of coal and alum
(the latter is made in China, I believe, always from pyritiferous shales that accom-
pany coal), to be used in locating the coal-bearing formation; and of indications of
limestone, as limestone-marbles, limestone, caves, stalactites, fossil brachiopods, etc.
These localities are in every instance, unless otherwise stated, taken from Chinese
geographical works, especially from the Tatsingytungchi, and the geographies of
the separate provinces.

This is followed by a table of salt wells in Yunnan and Sz'chuen, which wiU be
explained further on ; and by a table of gold-bearing localities to assist in locating
the granito-metamorphic formation.

* Comtes Rendus. Acad, des Sciences, Paris, 1864, LVIII, No. 19, p. 878.

" Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1856, p. 319. * piot, in Joura. Asiat., 1840, October.

♦ Siluria, p. 425. Lond. 1859.

56

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Table of Localities of Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Makbles, Fossils, Caves,

Stalactites, etc., in China.*
F = fu ; C = chau ; H ^ hien.

Province.

Department.

District.

Place and' circumstances of occurrence.

Chihli.

Shuntien F.

Fangshan H.

Anthracite, S. W. 40 li at Hwanglung Mt.,
white marble.

(( it

Wangping H.

Anthracite at Muntakau, Maanshan, and Tatsau.

il 11

II II

Bituminous at Chaitang and Chingshui.

tl 11

Waitso H.

White marble.

Yungping F.

Funing H.

10 li N. E. at Liulu Mt., coal. At Shiling, coal.

Kwangping F.

Tsz C.

Coal.

Siuenhwa F.

Coal at Kingtingpu.

(( li

YuC.

Anthracite (Shitan).

it it

Paungan C.

Anth'racite (Shitan). Coal in hills north of Sin-
paungan.

It it

II tt

Anthracite at Kiming.

li it

Sining H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

it tl

Wantsuen H.

Anthracite (Shitan). 15 li S. brown coal at Wu-
taiyau.

It 11

Brown coal 60 li N. N. W. of Kalgan at Wushikia.

ti li

Coal at Siautungko 180 li W. of Kalgan.

Pauting F.

Y. C.

Great cavern in Mt. Lungchi. (B.)

Chingting F.

....

Several large caverns.

Shunteh F.

Several large caverns.

Shansi.

Taiyuen F.

Chauyang H.

Large caverns near Chauyang H. 100 li E. of
Taiyuen P. (B.)

It It

Large caverns near Tseubong. (B.)

a it

Coal 12 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W. side of
Pan R. (Bagl.)

if «(

Coal 35 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W. side of
Fan B. (Bagl.)

It it

Lime burnt, 30 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W.
side of Pan R. (Bagl.)

Pingting C.

Soyang H.

Anthracite (Shitan). — Alum.

li li

Coal 12 W. of Pingting C. (Bagl.)

Hin C.

Tsingloh H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

.Tatung F.

Bituminous coal " quarried " in large blocks (Ta-
tan) near the city. *

It tl

Kwangling H.

Coal.

11 It

Lingkiu H.

Stalactites in Mt. Peshan.

Fanchau F.

jk

Coal and lime IT miles S. of city in the range
east of Fan R. (Bagl.)

11 It

Ling H.

Coal TO li E.

Pirgyang F.

Yching H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

(( 11

Yoyang H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

H It

Lingfung H.

Anthracite (Shitan) near Pingyang.

ti It

Hungtung H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

u tl

Fehshan H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

If 11

Taning H.

Great caverns 20 li N. W. in Mt. Kung.

li tt

Kih C.

Lime. — Alum.

HohC.

Lingshi H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

Tsehchau F.

Yangching H.

Anthracite (Shitan).

Kiang C.

Yuenchii H.

Alum.

Kiai C.

Alum.

tt tt

Ngany H.

" Cave of the "Winds" S

Shensi!

Yulin F.

Yulin H.

Anthracite (Shitan) 20 li S. E. at Mt. Tan.

Tungchau P.

Chingching H.

Alum.

It it

Tungkwei H.

Alum.

Fungtsiang F.

Kienyang H.

Cavern, 30 li S. E.

Ningkiang C.

*

Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen).

« B. = Biot; Bagl. = Rev. P. Bagley; Edk. = Rev. Mr. Edkins.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 61

Table op Localities op Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Marbles, &c. — Continued.

Province.

Department.

District.

Shensi.

Hanchung F.

Yenngan F.

Yencbuen H.

Tungchau F.

Kansuh.

Lanchau F.

It ti

Titau C.

it it

KinH.

Kungchang F.

Tnngwei H.

Tsiii C.

Tsinngan H.

Ningbia F.

Liangchau F.

Yungchang H.

Jehho.

Chingteh F.
(( tt

i( It

:.:::

Shingking.

tt i(

Kaiping H.
Chauyang H.

Shantung.

Tsingchau F.
Taingan F.

Yihte H.

Ichau F.

KiiC.

Tsinan F.

Kiangsuh.

Kiangning F.

tt tt

Kiangpu H.

■ Chinkiang F.

Kintang H.

Suchau F.

Siau H.

Siichau F.

Nganhwui.

Ningkwoh F.

In all the H.

Taiping F.

Fanchang H.

Ho C.

Heishan H.

Luchau F.

Tsau H.

It tt

Luhkiang H.

Fungyang F.

Honan.

Honan F.

Kung H.

it tt

Loyang H.

tt tt

Tungfung H.

JuC.

Lusan H.

Hupeh.

Ichang F.

Kwei C.

it it

Patung H.

Tunyang F.

Fang H.

Kingchau F.

Changyang H.

Sz'chuen.

Suchau F.

Kiating F.
tt it

Kienwei H.

Chungking F.

Chung C.

Tungchuen F.

Pungchi H.

Chehkiang.

Hangchau F.

^1 tt

In all the H.

it tt

Changhwa H.

Huchau F.

Wanchau F.

Pingyang H.

8 Maj

r, 1866.

Place and circumstances of occurrence.

Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen). — Many large
caverns. (B.)

Petroleum springs.

Coal 15 miles above junction of Fan R. and
Hwang Ho. (Bagl.) Many caverns in the
Tsepe, Lungmun, Taney, and Seou moun-
tains. (B.)

Coal 40 li S. W.

Coal 80 li distant.

Coal 40 li N. W.

Coal 60 li S. E. at Lieutnngping.

Coal 10 li N. W. at Sulungpa.

Coal N. E. on opposite bank of Hwang Ho (Hue).

Anthracite (Shitan) 20 li S. E. at Mt. Tan.

"Bad coal" 40 li S. E. at Mangninchuenkau.

Anthracite, E. near Sankia, W. of Palisade.

Anthracite and bituminous coal 40 li E. of Sankia.

Much coal among the mountains along the Palisade.

Anthracite.

Coal on W. coast of Liautung promontory in lat.
39° 40'.

Coal S. E. of mouth of Liau R.

Coal at Latsz Mt.

Coal and alum at Yehchintsung.

Stalactites.

Stalactites, 150 li N. at Yiinkungshan.

Much coal in the range, 33 miles E. (Bagl.)

Coal at Chunhvrachen half-vsray between Kin-
yang H. and Nanking. (Edk.)

Great cave ("Pit of Heaven") 30 li W:

Stalactites 65 li W. at Mt. Mau.

Anthracite and lime 30 li S. E. at Peitutsung
on Mt. Peitu.

Marble on islands of Taihu lake.

Anthracite (Shitan).

Brown coal ? (Kaufung.)

Coal.

Large cavern near town.

Alum.

Alum.

Coal.

Coal.

Stalactites in Mt. Sansz.

Coal.

Coal on banks of Yangtsekiang.

Coal on banks of Yangtsekiang.

Stalactites. — Alum.

Cavern in Mt. Fang.

Coal on Yangtsekiang near the city. Coal at Lotu.

Coal in the salt district. (Imbert.)

24 caves in a mountain near the salt wells.

Coal.

White marble 10 li N. W. at Mt. Peishi.

Limestone 90 li S. E.

Limestone in all the mountains of the department.

Many caverns in Mt. Pelaifung.

Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen) in Shiyen cave at
Mt. Yunko,

Coal. — Stalactites in Wanglung cavern.

Alum.

68 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Table op Localities of Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Maebles, &c. — Continued.

Province.

Chehkiang.

Kiangsi.

Hunan.

Kweichau.
Yunnan.

Fuhkien.

Kwangtung.

Kwangsi.

Department.

Chuchau P.

Shauhing F.
Taichau F.
Kinhwa F.

Yenchau F.

H II

ti it

Kiichau F.

Nanchang F.
Yuenchau F.

Kwangsin F.

It 11

Linkiang F.
Changsha F.
Hangchau F.

Pauking P.
Kweiyang C.

it n

Yungchau P.
Changteh P.
Chinyueu P.
Shihtsien P.
Wuting C.

Yungchang P.
Yanking? P.
Tali P.
Hinghwa P.

Changchau P.
Funing P.
Tsiuenchau P.
Shauchau P.

Shauking P.

Lienchau P.
Kingyuen P.
Kweilin F.
Pingloh P.

Wuchau P.

Yulin C.
Sinchau F.
Nanning P.
Taiping F.

District.

Lungtsiuen H.

Kinhwa H.

Lanki H.
li II

Tsenngan H.
Tunglu H.
Fanshui H.
Singan H.
Kiangshan H.
Changshan H.
Pungsin H.
Pinghiang H.
Fani H.
Wantsui H.

Tsienshan H.
Sinyu H.
Liuyang H.
Hangshan H.
Laiyang H.
In all the H.
Siying H.

In all the H.
Llngling H.
Nganhiang H.

Yuenmau H.

Anko

Juyuen H.

Pingloh H.
Kungchin^ H.

Lipu H.
Tsinki H.
Hwaitsih H.
Pohpeh H. '
Pingnan H.
Suenhwa H.
Shangsz C.

Place and circumstances of occurrence.

Caverns in many of the mountains.

Fossil Brachiopods and a cavern on Mt. Wang-
matsien.

Caverns.

White marble on Mt. Tsang.

Cavern (Tsutsesantung).

White stalactites at Peiyiin cave in Mt. Tungnien.

Lime at Peikang Mt.

Stalactites.

Stalactites at Langsien cave.

Cavern (Yangsantung).

Coal.

Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387).

Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387).

Anthracite at Lauhukau.

Anthracite.

Cavern and Fossil Brachiopods.

Fossil Brachiopods.

Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387).

Alum.

Stalactites.

Alum.

Coal. Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Nesho.

Coal.

Alum.

Coal.

Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Shiyen.

Alum.

Fossil Brachiopods.

Fossil Brachiopods.

White marble just east of the city.

"Dragon pavern" 1 mile S. W. of city.

Alum. Caves with bones. Fossil Brachiopods
in the Kauhyin Mt.

Caverns

Caverns. (B )

Orthoceratites.

Coal (Chin. Rep. xvi, p. 80).

Anthracite (Chin. Rep. xvi, p. 80).

Caverns.

'Caverns.

Caverns.

Coal.

Stalactites.

Stalactites and Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Shi-
yen.

Dendritic marble.

Stalactites.

Ossiferous caverns in the Nanshan Mts.

Fossil Brachiopods, — Stalactites.

Stalactites 31 li B

Stalactites 5 li E. at Mt. Kintsumi, and 28 li E.
at Mt. Yintieh.

Stalactites 1 li S. at Mt. Sung.

White marble 10 li N. at Peish'i.

Marble 80 li S. W.

Stalactites 30 li S

Fossil Brachiopods 1 2 li S. E. at Mt. Yenshi.

Fossil Brachiopods 90 li E. at Mt. Shiyen.

Stalactites and white marble 2 li E. at Mt. Peishi.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

Table of Localities PaoDticiNG Salt ruoM Artesian Wells.

69

Province.

Department.

District.

Place and circumstances of occurrence.

Sz'chuen.

Chingtu F.

Wells.

tt It

Kien C.

Wells.

Tsz C.

80 wells.

<i «

Tszyang H.

4 wells.

<( i(

Nekiang H.

2 wells.

II (t

Jinshan H.

10 wells.

« «

Tsingnien H.

237 wells.

Ningyuen F.

Hwuili C.

Wells.

<i i<

Yenyuen H.

Wells.

Pauning F.

Langtsung H.

Wells.

<i 11

Nanpu H.

Wells.

Shunking P.

In all the H.

Wells.

Suchau P.

Pushun H.

Wells.

Chungking P.

Pah H.

Wells.

tt ti

Pihshan H.

Wells.

Chung C.

Wells.

Kweichau P.

Wan H.

Wells.

<i 11

Wushan H.

Wells. •

II II

Yunyang H.

Wells.

<' II

Fungtsi H.

Wells.

II II

Kai H.

Wells.

Suiting P.

Tatsoh H.

Wells.

Tnngchuea P.

In all the H.

Wells.

Mei C.

Pangshan H.

Wells.

Kiating P.

Weiynen H.

Wells.

11 i<

Yung H.

Wells.

II II

Tiewei H.

Wells.

II II

Lohshan H.

Wells.

Kung C.

Puhkiang H.

Wells.

LuC.

Kiangngan H.

11 wells N. W. of town

Yuunan.

Yunnan P.

Nganning C.

80 wells.

Tali P.

Yunglung C.

Wells.

it ft

Langklung H.

Wells.

Tsuhiung jF,

Tingyuen H.

Wells of black salt.

It ti

Kwantung H.

Wells of black salt.

ti tt

YauC.

Wells.

Wuting C.

Tsauchitsing.

Wells.

II II

Yuenmo H.

Well at Tsukiutsing.

Likiang P.

Wells at Sipeh Mt.

Pu'rh P.

Ningurh H.

Red salt.

Kingtung(Ting)

Wells.

Yungpeh (Ting)

Wells.

Shensi.

Kia C.

Lake salt.

Yulin P.

Yulin H.

Lake salt 80 li S. at Yiihopu.

tt (t

Tingpien H. ,

Salt lake N. W. at Yentsangpu ("salt mine").

Shansi.

Taiyuen P.

Taiyuen H.

Salt.

it tt

Tsingyuen H.

Salt.

Hin C.

Tingsiang H.

Salt.

Kiai C.

Ngani H.

Salt lake.

Tatung P.

Tatung H.

Salt.

II 11

Hwanyuen C.

Salt.

II II

Ying C;

"Excellent salt at Yanghochiao."

Lungan P.

Salt.

Pauteh C.

Salt.

Hoh C.

Salt.

Sieh C.

Salt.

60

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Table of Gold Washings and Mines.

Province.

Department.

District.

Place and circumstances of occurrence.

Chihli.

Shuntien P.'

Miyun H.

Gold mine 8 li E. of city.

Yungping F.

Tsienngan H.

Gold washings in the Kwaihochuen R.

IC li

Lulung H.

On Mt. Tsu.

Shensi.

Singan P.

Lintung H.

On Li Mt. 2 li W. of city.

Shang C.

Lohngan H.

Coarse wash gold at Hwanglungshan 80 li N.
B. of city ; and rich washings at Yanghwa-
shan.

Hanchung P.

Sihiang H.

Gold.

Hinngan P.

Hanying (ting)

Coarse gold in the Han R.

Kansuh.

Lanchau P.

__.---

Coarse wash gold.

Kungchang P.

MinC.

Coarse wash gold.

Kiai C.

Wan H.

Coarse wash gold.

Sining P.

Sining H.

Coarse wash gold.

Suh C.

Gold 70 li W. of the city at Tungtingshan.

Chinsi.»

Gold 60 li E. at Kinshan.

Shantung.

Icliau P.

Lanshan H.

Gold and silver mine 90 li S. W. at Paushan,
and gold 60 li N.

ii it

Kii C-

Gold 100 li N. at Chipaushan.

Tsingchau P.

Linkii H.

Gold-sand 60 li S. W. at Sungshan.

Tungchau P.

Gold.

Hupeh.

Hwangchau P.

Hwangkang H.

Wash gold 140 li N. at Tankingshan.

tt 11

Hwangan H.

Gold E. at Tsangkiashan.

Kingchau P.

Gold.

Shinan P.

Kienchi H.

Coarse wash gold 15 li W. at Shijoushan.

Sz'chuen.

Chingtu P.

Kien C.

Coarse wash gold.

ii ti

Wangkiang H.

Coarse wash gold.

tc ti

Tsungking H.

Coarse wash gold.

tt It

Pang H.

Coarse wash gold.

Mien C.

Coarse wash gold.

tt tt

Ngan H.

Nugget gold N. E. at Kinshan.

Ningyuen P.-

Yenyuen H.

Gold 30 li W. at Hokinhoshan, and very coarse
gold 150 li N. W.

Panning P.

Kwangyuen H.

Coarse wash gold.

tt tt

PaC.

Coarse wash gold.

tt tt

Kien C.

Coarse wash gold.

Chungking P.

Yungtsang H.

Gold washings.

tt tt

Hoh C.

Gold washings.

tt tt

PuhC.

Gold washings.

Yuyang C.

Pangshui H.

Coarse wash gold.

Chung C.

Coarse wash gold.

Kweichau P.

Wan H.

Coarse wash gold 3 li S.

Suiting P.

Tatsoh H.

Gold.

Lungngan P.

Pingwu H.

Coarse wash gold.

Mei C.

Coarse wash gold.

LuC.

Coarse wash gold in the Tsungkiang R.

YaC.

Coarse wash gold in the Fihkiashui R.

MauC.

Gold.

Chehkiang.

ISTingpo P.

Gflld at Kehyiishan.

Yenchau P.

In all the H.

Wash gold.

Chuchau P.

Lungtsiuen H.

Light-colored gold.

....

Sungyang H.

Light-colored gold.

Euhkien.

Taiwan P.

Pungshan H.

Gold E. at Kinshan.

Puhchau P.

Coarse gold.

Kiangsi.

Nanchang P.

Pungsin H.

Gold-sand.

Jauchau P.

Poyang H.

Gold at Hwangkingtseh.

Puchau P.

Lingtse H.

Gold 40 li W.

Kanchau P.

Shuikin H.

Gold.

Peking.

' Barkoul.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

Table of Gold Washings and Mines. — Continued.

61

Province.

Department.

District.

Place and circumstances of occurrence.

Kwangtung.

Shauchaa P.

Yingte H.

Gold.

Hwuichau P

Hoyuen H.

Gold at Lantienta. >

Shanking P.

Kailden H.

Gold at Kintsung.

it It

Kwangning H.

Gold at Kinkung.

Hunan.

Changsha P.
Hangchau P.
Yueuchau P.
Changteh P.
Chin 0.
Tsing C.
Yochau P.

Gold.
Gold.
Gold.
Gold.
Gold.
Gold.
Gold.

Kwangsi.

Liuchau P.

Yung H.

Gold.

It It

Laiping H.

Gold.

Sz'ngan P.

Pin 0.

Gold.

ii it

Tsienkiang H.

Gold.

(( tt

Shangling H.

Gold.

Pingloh P.

Pingloh H.

Gold.

tt tt

Yungngan C.

Gold.

Wuchau P.

Hwaitsih H.

Wash gold in river at Kinngohshan TO li W.

Sinchau P.

Kwei H.

Gold.

Nanning P.

Hwang C.

Gold mines.

Kweichau.

Tungjin P.

Gold-sand washings 100 li W. in the Sungchi
and 140 li W. in the Tichi R.

R.,

Tsuni P.

Tungtsz H.

Gold.

Yunnan.

Tsuhhiung P.

Yau C.

Coarse gold in the upper Tayauho R.

It tt

Tsuhhiung H.

Gold in the Yenshan.

Likiang P.

Gold washed in many places in the Kinshaki
for a distance of 500 li.

ang

Yungchang P.

Gold mines in the Changpangshan.

tt It

Gold washings in the Lantsan R.

Tungchuen P.

Gold washings in the Kinshakiang.

Yungpeh (Ting)

Gold.

Before attempting to sketch the distribntion of the known formations of the
Chinese empire, I will give the principal reasons for assuming a general simplicity
in the geological structure of that country; for believing that the surface of the
Eighteen Provinces is made up almost exclusively of the following formations : the
Granito-metamorphic/ the Devonian limestone, the Triassic, Coal measures, and
the younger Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits.

Wherever the rocks beneath the Devonian limestone were seen, in central and
in northern China, these were found to be either metamorphic schists, or granitoid
rocks, with the one exception of a thin bed of sandstone, already mentioned as under-
lying the limestone at the entrance to the Lukan gorge of the Yangtse. At the
Meiling pass, on the northern boundary of Kwangtung, the limestone is said to rest
on granite.

An exception to this rule exists, perhaps, along the coast range in southeastern
China, where the valley of the Canton river is said to expose an extensive forma-
tion of " graywacke" resting on granite.

' By the Granito-metamorphic formation is here meant the stratified and non-stratified rocks of
different ages, older than the Devonian limestone.

62 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

The Sinian, or N. E. S. W. system of elevation corresponds in many respects to
our Appalachian system, and if the analogy holds good throughout, it seems pro-
bable that the Sinian revolution terminated soon after the deposition of the Chinese
Coal measures, a supposition that is corroborated by the absence, so far as my
observation goes, of any younger formations elevated by this revolution.

The apparently total absence, in the line of the Yangtse, of eruptive porphyries,
greenstones,, trachytes, and basalts, seems to point to a corresponding absence of
subsequent disturbance through a large area of the country.

Again, were there fossiliferous strata of the Jurassic or Cretaceous ages, their
petrifactions would be found in all parts of the empire, used as curiosities and as
medicines, as is the case with the fossU. brachiopods and orthoceratites. This is
important evidence in China, where art is based on the remarkable, or rather
strange, in nature.^

In classifying the above tabulated data, I have assumed that the gold washings
are indicative of the neighborhood of the granito-metamorphic formation, and have
referred this to the adjacent ridges. I have also assumed that the limestone marble,
lime, caves, stalactites, and fossil brachiopods, etc., all point to the presence in each
locality of the same great bed of Devonian limestone. My own observations in the
northern provinces and along the Yangtse, those of "Blackiston in Sz'chuen, and the
remarks of casual travellers in the south, aU point to one, and only one, great
limestone formation, which everywhere underlies the coal-bearing rocks, and to
which, in aU probability, all the indications above given refer.

That the brachiopods belong to this formation is merely an inference, for I never
was able to find a fossil of any kind in the limestone. It is, however, an inference
based on circumstantial evidence, as when they are frequently cited as occurring in
caverns or in the same neighborhood with marble, or stalactites, etc., or in close
proximity to coal localities.

With regard to the coal-bearing rocks, I have supposed the coals to belong to the
same age throughout the empire, excepting a few which seem, from their names,
to be tertiary brown coals. The similar character of the fossils, from the north and
from the Yangtse, and the position of given localities with reference to the lime-
stone in many parts of the country, favor the assumption.

Had we good topographical maps of China, the sketch I am about to attempt
would be much facilitated ; but although the water-courses are laid down on the
Jesuit map, with a general approximation to accuracy that is very remarkable, we
have very little knowledge of the orography. In the first pages of this paper I
pointed out the prevalence of the northeast, southwest direction in the prominent
features of Eastern Asia, and went so far as to apply this rule to the establishing

* Both the Chinese and Japanese have a strong taste for the bizarre in nature, as shown by their
fondness for dwarfed or deformed trees. Waterworn and cavernous rocks are carried long distances
to be used in ornamenting gardens, and quarries are worked for blocks of dendritic limestone to be
made into articles of furniture or ornament. All kinds of fossils are esteemed as medicines, and sold
as such in all apothecary shops, the brachiopods as Shiyen "stone swallows," and the fossil bones
and teeth, from caverns and loam deposits, as "dragon's teeth," "dragon's scales," "dragon's
bones," etc.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 63

of several principal anticlinal axes of elevation in China Proper. In this sketch
I shall endeavor to give more reasons for the locating of these ridges, vphich, on
the smaU, general sketch-map, are represented by the limestone and granite streaks.

In describing the structure of the northern part of Chihli and Shansi, a range
was often mentioned under the name of the Barrier range. Its trend is here west of
S. W., and its prolongation woul^ cross the Hwang Ho in Pauteh (chau), and thence
run S. W. through Shensi and Kansuh, coinciding with the watershed between the
eastern and western reaches of the great bend of the Hwang Ho. We have already-
seen that this range has elevated the Devonian limestone in its northeastern part.
The Hwang Ho traverses it through an immense gorge, a fact which in China is
alnlost proof of the presence of the limestone. West of this range are the coal
localities of the Ninghia (Fu) and Lanchau (Fu).

The next great axis, to the eastward, seems to originate, like the former, in the
mountain-knot of the Ourangdaban, near the Tushi gate of the Great Wall, N. W.
from Peking. Following a S. W. course it forms the range which we crossed at
the Nankau pass, and crossing the Shansi boundary it is kni^pn as the sacred
Wutaishan. Still further to the S. W. it crosses the Hwang Ho under the name
of the Lungmun shan [mountains of the Dragon gate]. In northern Chihli we have
seen that this is a granite range flanked with the Devonian limestone ; the latter
formation is indicated to the S. W. in the lime works west of the Fan river, in the
caverns of Taning H. aid the lime of Kih C, in the celebrated Lungmun gorge,
through which the Hwang Ho passes this range and in the caverns of Fungtsiang F.
I have supposed its continuation bordering on the highlands of western Sz'chuen,
forming the watershed between the Sz'chuen and Tibetan sources of the Yangtse.

Between these two apparently principal axes there seem to be minor ones, but I
have colored the intervening space as Coal measures. In it lie the coal basins of
Siuenhwa F. in Chihli ; of Tatung F. and Tsingloh H. in Shansi ; and of YuHn
F. and Pingliang F. in Shensi.

We come now to the central axis of elevation, to which attention was called in the
beginning of this paper, and the establishing of which was there based on a study
of the map. Where this range crosses the Yangtse, we have seen that it consists
of two anticlinal ridges of limestone with an aggregate breadth of 80 miles, and
containing between them a coal basin. In its continuation S. W. to the Nanling
mountains it seems to occupy a large part of Kweichau. The only data for this
portion of the range are, the numerous gold washings at the base of the watershed
between Kweichau and Hunan, that I have taken as indications of the granito-
metamorphic formation, and the caverns and marble localities of Shihtsien F. and
Chinyuen F. In its continuation to the N. E. it is crossed by the river Han, and
gives rise to the sources of the Hwai river. It disappears at the edge of the great
delta plain to rise again as the watershed of Shantung. In this province the nume-
rous gold localities that stretch through the centre from S. W. to N. E. indicate the
presence of the older metamorphic rocks, which, indeed, according to my own
observation, form the coast near Chifu. The stalactites of Taingan F, and Kii-C.
are the only data for coloring in the limestone. The continuation of this range
further to the N. E. is found in the limestone islands that stretch from Shantung to

64 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

the "Regent's Sword," and thence through Liautung, as the Changpeh shan, divid-
ing the waters of the Yaluh and of the Usuri from those of the Liau and the Sun-
gari. In passing close under the precipitous shores of Liautung, I observed that
this promontory is made up of parallel N. E. S. "VV. ridges, and the rocks had all
the appearance of limestone.

Between this central axis and that previously (Jescribed, lies, perhaps, the most
important fold of the Coal measures. Beginning in the extreme north, we find
coal at several localities along the west coast of Liautung, and along the "Palisade"
west of the Liau river. In northern Chihli are the coal basins of Yungping F., of
Peking, and of Kwanping P.; in Shansi those of Pingting C, Taiyuen P., Fan-
chau P., Hoh C, Pingyang P., Tsehchau P., and Kiang C; in Honan those of
Honan P. This main fold, or zone of folds, seems to occupy a large part of the
provinces of Sz'chuen and Yunnan. Many minor ridges bring the limestone to the
surface in these provinces. In this region almost aU the indications of the Coal
measures, exclusive of the information given by Capt. Blackiston, refer to the great
salt deposits. Th^ following considerations have led me to look upon these deposits
as members of the Chinese Coal measures. Some, at least, are in the neighborhood
of abundant coal mines.^ Thick coal seams are sometimes bored through before
reaching the salt. They occur at various points along the Yangtse as in Wushan
H., Chingking P., and Siichau P., in all which places they must be very near ridges
of limestone, but above that formation. In Shunking P. and in Kiating P., they
are also near such ridges. If the weUs are in rocks younger than the limestone,
their depth (500 to 2,600 feet) cannot penetrate to anything older than the lime-
stone. This, and the fact that thick seams of coal are bored through in these wells,
and the remark of Blackiston that all the coal rocks he saw in Sz'chuen resembled
those of the Kwei coal field, the character of which we know, render it, I think,
probable that both the coal and the .salt deposits belong to the Chinese Coal
measures.

The region in question, though containing many small parallel troughs, seems to
be, as a whole, a major trough, if I may use the expression, between two principal
anticlinal axes, and, as such, it seems to be traceable through Eastern Asia. To it
the S. W. N. E. course of the Yangtse in Sz'chuen owes its direction, and the same
may be said of the northern part of the delta plain, the Gulf of Pechele, the valley
of the Liau river, and that of the lower Amur, and the depression in which lies the
Gulf of Penjinsk.

On the sketch map the two members of the central anticlinal axis, which we
have seen to exist where it crosses the Yangtse, are represented as continuing
separately in Honan and Kweichau. "Whether the course of the Wu river, in the
latter province, is suificient indication of a continuation of the synclinal trough of
Kwei toward the S. W. is doubtful, but to the N. E. the coal basins of Ju C. in
Plonan, and of YihteH. (Tsingchau P.) in Shantung fall in that line.

East of this central axis is another major trough or basin. In this are some of
the coal basins of Hunan, the lake-plairi of the Tungting, and the valleys of the

' Imbert, in Annalcs de I'Assoc. pour la propag. de la Foi.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN, 65

rivers Yuen and Tsz, all in Hunan, and in Nganhmii the valley of the Hwai, and
the coal basin of Siichau in Kiangsuh.

This trough is limited on the east by what would seem to be a band of parallel
ridges extending from the province of Kwangsi to Kiangsuh. We have seen the
Yangtse crossing one of these between Hankau and Kiukiang, while another,
broken through by the Poyang lake, shuts in the valley of the Yangtse on the east.
The river flows between these two from the Poyang to beyond Nanking.

Numerous indications of the limestone as stalactitic caves, fossil brachiopods,
etc., extend in a southwest direction through Kiangsi and Hunan into Kwangsi,
while in the same belt are many evidences of the Coal measures. .

That the space between these ridges is occupied by coal basins in part of Kiangsi
and Nganhwui is certain, and here belong also the coal basins of southeastern
Hunan. I have, therefore, represented them as independent throughout. In the
easternmost of these, east of the Poyang lake, are the granite hiUs of Kingteh,
which furnish the celebrated kaolin' for fine porcelain, while Abel mentions granite
and micaceous schists as occurring in the high hiUs west of the lake in the western
ridge.

The data for the next trough to the east are the existence of what seem to be
shales and sandstones of the Coat measures on the Kan river from Nanchang F. to
the Meiling pass, and the coal fields of Kwangsin F. (Kiangsi), of Kiichau F. and
Chuchau F. (Chehkiang), of Ningkwo F. (Nganhwui), ia every Men of which there
is coal, and of Huchau F. (Chehkiang).

We come now to the coast axis of elevation marked by the range of mountains
that separate Nganhwui and Kiangsi from Chehkiang and Fuhkien.

We know that at the Meiling it, is of granite flanked with limestone; the fact
that Mr. Fortune found the peaks near the headwaters of the Min river to be
granitic, and in the northeast the granitic islands of Chusan, all indicate a granite
range, whUe the table furnishes numerous evidences of the presence, on both sides,
of the great limestone formation.

There are even fewer data for understanding the structure of the eastern and
southern provinces than for almost any other part of the empire. Scattered iadica-
tions of limestone and coal, and the courses of sotne of the rivers have prompted
. me to insert another axis of elevation, nearer the coast and stretching from Hong-
kong to Wanchau F. in Chehkiang. Such an axis is apparent in the granite^
islands that stretch away toward Hainan, and to it this island seems to belong.

The indications of the Coal measures along the coast are the coal fields of
Hinghwa F. and Nganki H.^ (Tsiuenchau F.).

The prolongation of the coast axis of elevation cuts the southern and most moun-
tainous parts of Corea, and coincides nearly with the granite axis of Kamschatka.

I have thus far in this sketch made no mention of any other system of elevation
than the N. E. S.W. ; but, as we have seen in a former chapter, another system, the

» This word is said to be derived fron kao, high, and ling, ridge.
" Chin. Repository.

' This I take to be the Anko mentioned in the Chin. Rep. as producing anthracite.
9 May, 1866.

66 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

E. W., exists, and to its disturbing influence are due some of the most important
and beneficial features in the structure of the country.

Between the Wei river of Shensi and the Sz'chuen boundary, two ranges, parallel
branches of the prolonged Kwenlun, with a general trend from west to east, pene-
trate far into Central China. Some of the peaks of these chains are said by Klap-
roth, on Chinese authority, to rise above the snowline. The numerous gold locali-
ties in this region point to an extensive development of the older metamorphic
rocks, while the presence of stalactitic caves and other indications of limestone seem
to show that this formation flanks the ranges in question.

The trends of the upper courses of the rivers Han and Kialmig, and the com-
mimication said to exist between these streams at Ningkiang C. seem to indicate
that the space between these ridges is an elevated table-land, divided by a low
watershed that separates the sources of the Han from those of the Kialung. This
watershed would be in the line of the limestone range represented as crossing
Shansi, Shensi, and Western Sz'chuen.

The disturbances caused by the northemnlost of these ridges ceases in Honan,
but the southern member seems to continue farther east, apparently crossing Hupeh
into Nganhwui.

Of the mountains in Southern China thai belong to this system, we know as little
as of those just mentioned. They are spoken of as containing snow-capped peaks
and high table-lands in Kwangsi and Kweichau, and are supposed by Humboldt^
to be the continuation of the Himalaya mountains. The hydrography of Yunnan,
as shown on the great map of Kanghi, would seem to indicate the existence of a
more or less elevated plateau, which, beginning west of the Lantsan river, trends
nearly east, entirely across Yunnan, occupying a region in which rise tributaries
both of the Yangtse and the Si Ho, and of the rivers that flow to the Gulf of Ton-
quin. The little that is known of the climate of the city of Yunnan F. (in about
25° N.) tends to confirm the supposition that it is on an elevated table-land.^ This
plateau seems to extend to the western part, of the province, where it appears to
terminate abruptly toward the plain of the Irawaddi river, for Marco Polo required
two days and a half to descend from the city of Yungchang F. to the lowlands of
Ava, and speaks of the descent as being very great (" grandissima diScesa.")^

Toward the east these highlands are represented by Klaproth as forming two
diverging ranges of mountains, the northernmost of which is crowned with snowy
peaks and glaciers till near the head waters of the Yuen river.* There seems to be
little doubt that in the meridian of Kweilin F., and to the east of that point, this
northern branch forms a comparatively low range, and is nearly lost in the N. E.
S. W. system.

'■ Asie Centrale. ' Ritter, Asien, III, 754. =■ Ritter, Asien, III, p. Y46.

« Ritter, Asien, III, p. 660. Klaproth, Mag. Asiat., II, pp. 139, 156.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 67

CHAPTEE VII.i

THE SINIAN^ SYSTEM OF ELEYATION.

I HAVE taken the liberty of giving this name to that extensive N. E. S. W. sys-
tem of upheaval which is traceable through nearly all Eastern Asia, and to which
this portion of the continent owes its most salient features.

We have seen how generally prevalent this trend is in China., whether we con-
sider the hydrography, the courses of the mountains,^ or the strike of the strata.

In crossing the plateau of Mongolia from the Great Wall to Siberia, I found the
same trend predominating in the uplifted strata of old metamorphic rocks, and
generally in the ridges' that cross the steppes of the Gobi.

A glance at any recent map of Siberia wiU show that the same rule may be ap-
plied to all of the eastern part of this vast region. The Yablonoi, Altan-kingan, and
Stanovoi mountains, with aU their intermediate, parallel ridges, that together form
the valley network of the upper Lena and Amur rivers, are instances of the develop-
ment of this system on a grand scale. Although exceptions — that may or may not
belong to this system — to the general N. E. trend seem to exist in the Great Kin-
gan mountains — the eastern edge of the great plateau — and in the continuation of
the Stanovoi in the far northeast, still to the configuration arising from the prevalence
of this trend, are due the most marked features of Eastern Asia. The seas of Ochotsk
and of Japan, the gulfs of Pechele and of Tonquin, are geoclinal valleys of this
system of great geological age, which the disturbances of a long range of time
have not been able to obliterate. And a similar valley is, I think, indicated for
the land by the line of reference I have drawTi through the valleys of the Yangtse
aind Amur. As throughout China and across Mongolia I was unable to find any-
thing more recent than the Chinese Coal measures affected by this uplift, and as,
to the extent of my knowledge, no younger rocks are affected by it in Siberia,* it
seems proper for the present to refer all the N. E. ridges to one system, and their
origin to one revolution.

The, in many places, unconformable strikes and dips of the older metamorphic
schists of China show the existence of disturbances that had ceased before the for-
mation of the great bed of limestone.

» See Map, PL 1.

" From Sinfin, the name applied to China in the earliest mention made of that country. — Isaiah.
' That the general trend of their mountains is N. E. was known to the early native writers.
* The explorations of M. Tchihatcheff, in the Altai, the eastern part of which belongs to the sys-
tem in question, failed to discover any rocks more recent than the Permian, affected>by this uplift.

68 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

The Sinian revolution seems to have begun after the deposition, of the limestone,
and before that of the Coal measures ; at least the difference in character that is
visible between the beds that overlie the limestone on the two flanks of the anti-
clinal ridge in Western Hupeh, and the presence, at the bottom of the Coal measures
near Peking, of conglomerates, formed from porphyries that are younger than the
limestone, are facts that seem to favor this idea. It is not improbable that these
first movements determined the outlines of the principal areas of land and water,
and of the future coal basins. The revolution does not seem to have reached its
climax tUl after the Coal measures had been deposited, when the strata were plicated
and prepared for metamorphism.

Very striking analogies are apparent between the Sinians and our own Appala-
chians. Both have the same trend ; both are the results of revolutions, which,
though they may not have been coextensive in time, were contemporaneous through
a long period ; and both have folded immense areas of coal-bearing strata. As the
elevation of the Appalachians determined the outline of Eastern America, so the
Sinian revolution fixed the eastern boundary of the great continent.

We have, in this analogy, one more link in the chain of evidence toward proving
the subordination to harmonious laws of the causes that have produced aU the varied
features in the configuration of our planet.

One of the most remarkable features in the configuration of the northern
hemisphere, seems to me to be the number of geoclinal valleys having a nearly
N. E. S. W. course, that characterize it. In the extreme east of the' great con-
tinent we find one, occupied by the sea, between the Japanese Islands and the
coast range of Manchuria ; between this and the Kingan mountains^ another, which
I have several times alluded to as the principal line of reference in treating of the
Sinian features ; the Gobi, including the region between the Kingan and the Altai,
forms a third. These troughs have aU been referred to in the preceding pages,
but, if I may be permitted to generalize beyond the closer limits of this paper, I
think a much larger one exists in the vast extent of lowlands that stretch unbroken,
excepting by the Ural mountains, from the Altai to the Scandinavian peninsula.

' The eastern edge of the plateau, unlike the southern, is formed by parallel ridges trending
between N. E. and N. by E., the valleys between which form succeeding terraces from the plateau
to the Sungari river. Prince Krapotkin, who travelled in disguise from the Argun river to Mergen,
ascending the Gan river, and descending the Noumin river, gave me the following information : The
ascent to the edge of the plateau from the west was hardly perceptible, the descent to the east rapid.
In descending he crossed four parallel ranges trending N. N. E., all of which are traversed; by the
tributaries of the Sungari. The specimens braught back by Prince Krapotkin, chiefly from the
ranges, were mostly granite, porphyries, argillaceous and micaceous schists, and gneiss. Coal is
abundant along the eastern slope.

According to M. Radde the mean height of the Amur between the Kingan mountains and the
Bureja mountains, is 800 feet above the sea; between Mochada and the Kur river, from 400 to 500
feet. — Badde, in Petermann's Mittheilungen, 1861, pp. 449 — 457.

MM. Saurin and Murray, of the English Legation in Peking, informed me that in._ ascending to
the plateau from the region west of Jehol, they followed a valley through a mountainous district, and
reached the table-land without seeing any signs of an abrupt wall, such as it presents along its
southern edge.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 69

Through this broad tract two minor valleys are indicated, one in the trough that
contains the Aralo-Caspian depression and the lakes of the Barabinsky steppe, and
the other containing the Kara sea, the White sea, the lakes of Finland and the
Baltic,

Beyond the mountains of Norway the great depression occupied by the Sea of
Greenland and the North Atlantic, is one of the best defined in this series of valleys.

Finally, in the vast extent of lowlands of British America we have a great geo-
clinal depression lying between the Appalachians and the Rocky mountains, forming
an elevated geoclinal valley between N. E. and N. W, systems of elevation ; just as
in the North Pacific Ocean we have a depressed vaUey of the same kind between
N. W. and N E, systems — the Rocky mountains and the Sinians.

Both Prof. Guyot and Prof Dana have demonstrated the fact that the principal
continental outlines are referable to N. E. and N. W. systems of trends.

70 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

CHAPTEK VIII.'

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OP THE ROUTE FROM THE GREAT
WALL TO THE SIBERIAN FRONTIER.

The route, here described, after following for about 100 iftiles that along which
the measurements of MM. Fuss and v. Bunge were made, leaves this and remains
about 60 miles to the west of it for most of the distance, joining it again in about
latitude 47° N.

The journey was made in the months of November and December, the ther-
mometer ranging from + 15° to — 28° F., with an almost incessant, strong, north-
west wind. This, and the fact that we travelled seventeen hours a day, will, I
think, be a sufficient excuse for the meagreness of the information. Nothing but
the absence of all geological observations over this immense region, prompts the
insertion of the following scanty notes.

Nov. 21, 1864. Leaving Kalgan we ascended to the plateau by the Tutinza road.'^
For the first two or three days the intensely cold winds made it impossible to take
notes. The great volcanic formation, which we have seen forming the southern
edge of the table-land for a long distance to the westward, extends from thirty to
fifty miles in this direction, as the only rock in place, and the conformation of the
surface is similar to that with which we have become acquainted in describing the
journey to the west, only the valleys are generally broader and mone shallow.

During the next fifty miles our route crossed several low ridges, chiefly granitic,
the intervening plains being covered with the detritus of quartz and metamorphic
sandstone. This is succeeded by a rolling country with hills of red granite, diorite,
and greenstone porphyry, which continues to beyond the low granite ridge of Mt.
Ugundui.^ The fragments on the surface of the plains were mostly of granite and
quartzitic sandstone, together with scattered pieces of lava and pebbles of chal-
cedony, agate, etc.

Nov. 26. After passing Mt. Ugundui the character of the country underwent a
marked change. Our road lay, from the last-named mountain to the Mingan hills,
through a depression. In the distance the flat outline of the plateau was seen on
all sides, the intervening country being cut up into isolated knobs and ridges by
numerous water-courses and lake beds. The structure of the knobs shows them to

* See Section on PI. Y.

" This portion of the road, as far as the summit of the plateau, was described in a previous chapter.
' Many of the names of places, etc , used in this sketch are given on Klaproth'^ large map of Cen-
tral Asia.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN 71

be the remnants of a deposit the horizontal beds of which were continuous over the
area in question. I examined one of these hUlocks, about 50 feet high, near lake
BUika Noor, and found it made up of the following beds, from younger to older : —

Compact, yellowish-gray limestone, with a tendency to oolitic structure.

Thin bed of dark clay, or earth, with concretions of manganese.

Bed of finely crystalline, white, saccharoid gypsum.

Gypsum in massive, transparent crystals associated with more or less red clay.

The stratification is horizontal throughout, and the same structure seemed to be
continuous as far as the Mingan hills. What the character of the plateau is I could
not determine ; as seen in the distance it limits the depression with a cliff and long
talus.

An alluvial deposit of Ted loam is present in many of the valleys, and is, perhaps,
nearly contemporanebus Avith the erosion of the water-courses.

Nov. 27. In the morning we found ourselves in the Mingan hills, apparently an
isolated protuberance rising only a few hundred feet above the plateau. The rocks
of these hills, where first observed near the southern edge, were chiefly quartzite,
compact sandstone, and a talco-argillaceous schist, in highly inclined strata trending
N. W. and dipping to N, E. Several miles further to the northwest we came to
ridges of limestone, in 'beds also highly inclined, 'with a strike W. N. W. and dip to
S. S. "W. This rock resembles the limestone of the hills west of Peking. It is tra-
versed by dykes of greenstone. In the Mingan hills I found a few rolled fragments
of basaltic lava similar to that of the southern edge of the plateau.

To the west of these hills lies the broad deep valley of Olannoor, which seems to
connect the depression south of these hiUs with the great plain of Tamchintala,
to which we now descend. As we enter upon this steppe we see before us nothing
but an unbroken sandy and gravelly plain with a little scattered grass. A con-
siderable percentage of the pebbles on the surface consists of agate, cornelian, and
chalcedony.

'Nov. 28. The morning found us stUl travelling on the. Tamchintala, but we
soon descended into a large vaUey-like depression. The plateau is here cut into
to the depth of perhaps 150 feet, the vertical wall giving an insight into its local
structure. The whole exposed thickness consists of horizontal strata of white cal-
careous sandstone with thin beds of arenaceous limestone interstratified. At the
bottom of the section a bed of red arenaceous clay crops out. The sandstone varies
in grain from a fine grit to a fine conglomerate, the ingredients of both being ap-
parently identical with those of the gravel on the surface, between which and the
underlying rock there is no line of demarcation. If the pebbles of agate, cornelian
and chalcedony are derived from the amygdaloidal lava, so common farther south,
their occurrence in this deposit throws light on the relative ages of the two forma-
tions.

After crossing this valley depression, which is several miles broad, we ascended
to the plain at about the same level, apparently, as on the other side.

Nov. 29. During the previous night we left the plain and entered a rough and
very undulating country. Here a belt of older rocks, about seventy miles broad.

72 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

seems to rise a little above the general level of the plateau. Its position is marked
on most maps by the boundary line between inner and outer Mongolia.

As we entered these hills during the night I could not see the structure of their
southern edge, but where first observed, several miles from that point, the outcrop-
ping rock is a compact hard sandstone, in nearly vertical strata trending about E, W.
Beyond this the next rock observed was granite in red and white varieties, traversed
by numerous dykes of brown porphyry with bright red crystals of feldspar.

The surface of this granite region forms numerous depressions, the bottoms of
which seem to be occupied, in the wet season, by ponds without outlets. In the
gravel of one of these depressions I found a slightly rounded fragment of sHicified
wood.^

Nov. 30. The morning of this day found us stUl in the" hilly region. The rocks
along the road were clay schist. We came, early in the morning, to a narrow
gravelly plain, whif;h, descending between two granite cliffs, opened out on to the
broad plain of the vaUey of Ulannoor.

The hills on either side of the narrow plain just mentioned, which are of coarse
granite traversed by a similar rock of finer grain, are bare, without either soil or
vegetation, excepting two or three dwarf trees growing from crevices in. the rock.
These trees were the only ones seSn on the plateau between Kalgan and the hills
of Urga.

Entering the valley of Ulannoor near Gashun we found ourselves in a country
of high terraces, these consisting, where seen, mostly of beds of clay. This clay
would seem to be the equivalent of the calcareous sandstone, and is covered, in the
narrow vaUey mentioned above, by a deposit of loam.

Crossing the valley of Ulannoor, we entered a valley in the hills of Ulandzabuk-
daban. Here the ground was covered with angular fragments of clay-slate, and
gneiss.

EoUed fragments of porous lava were also found on the surface.

Dec. 1. This day our road lay through the hills of Senji, which consist of al-
ternating vertical strata of micaceous, argUlaceous, and talcose schists, and com-
pact limestone in blue, black, and white varieties, aU having a very regular trend
to about N. E. These strata are traversed in aU directions by dykes of greenstone.
Large lenticular masses of quartz were also observed, and some broad veins of the
same material, apparently interstratified, and discolored with the oxides of iron and
manganese.

The frequent repetition of the more easily recognizable rocks would seem to show
a highly folded condition of the strata.

The hmestone having better resisted the action of disintegration, forms ridges from
100 to 150 feet high above the bottoms of the troughs formed by the removal of the in-
tervening softer rocks. Thus the general appearance of the surface is that of parallel
valleys and ridges. But here too we find the same tendency to form depressions
without outlets, that we have already seen in the granite region (Nov. 29th), and

^ Silicified wood was shown to me in Peking under the name of Hanhaishi. Hanhai is the Chinese
name for the Gobi desert.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 73

>Rfhich is .mentioned in a previous chapter as occurring along tlie southern edge of
the plateau, in the erosion of the lava region. In all these instances the depressions
are entirely in the solid rock, and vary in size from a few yards to several thousand
feet across. They have the appearance of being produced by erosion and not by
sinking. In the instance before us this conform3,tion is often assisted by cross
dykes of greenstone. But the occurrence generally would seem to arise from ine-
qualities in the texture of the rock. Whatever the cause of these depressions may
be, their manner of formation is probably closely connected with the origin of a
large class of desert lake beds.

For many miles the surface of the rock was entirely bare of soil, excepting in the
bottoms of the depressions just mentioned, where ponds are probably formed in wet
years.

From this hilly region we came gradually into another of those broad plains,
which form, in the aggregate, the true plateau. These plains, the steppes of the
Russians, and tola of the Mongols, are like those of our own deserts in the Eocky
mountains. They are great valleys, often from twenty to sixty miles broad, filled
with marine deposits that have retained their horizontal position and remained often
intact from erosion. Their surface is not, strictly speaking, horizontal, but slopes
from both sides to the centre.

The deposit forming the substructure of this plain, seems to be the same sand-
stone and conglomerate that we have seen on the Tamchintala, judging from some
blocks of these rocks seen near a Mongol dwelling.

Crossing this plain we came, near its northern edge, to a line of basaltic cones
from 100 to 150 feet high, isolated from the low flat hills to the north, and appa-
rently resting on clay slate. They seemed thus to belong to a bed or stream rather
than to a dyke. Whether the flat hills near by are a continuation of the same
volcanic rock I could not determine.

The rock is a brownish-black, minutely crystalline basalt. On the surface of the
plain, near these hUls, I found large numbers of fragments of black and red cellular
lava, and abundant angular pieces of chalcedony, and red and green jasper, etc.

Dec. 2. During this day we crossed two broad valley depressions, the same cal-
careous sandstone and conglomerate already mentioned, forming apparently the sub-
structure both of the long valley slopes and of the higher land intervening between
these. A few fragments of blue limestone and white quartz, derived probably from
the formation we crossed yesterday, were found in the surface gravel ; but a large
percentage of this gravel consisted^of chalcedony, cornelian, and agate.

From the highest ground the flat outline of the plateau was visible in every
direction, excepting to the south, where we could see the hills of the past two or
three days rising to the height of perhaps 1000 feet above the neighboring plateau.

D5c. 3. We travelled the past night and this day on the continuation of the steppes
of the last two days. During the afternoon the plain descended gradually to the
north till it ceased abruptly against a granite ridge from 50 to 100 feet high. Beyond
this ridge, for a few miles, the country though somewhat lower than the plain of
'-.he morning, is bare of the steppe deposit, and presents a rough, granite surface.

Dec. 4. Detained one day by a houran or snow-storm of great violence.

10 May, 1866.

74 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Dec. 5. Travelled over a rolling country chiefly of granite and mica schist.
Associated with the latter rock is a vv^hite dolomitic limestone in apparently inter-
stratified beds, impregnated with specks and flakes of graphite. The general trend
of these rocks appeared to be to the N. W.

The granite had, in places, more the appearance of a metamorphosed conglome-
rate breccia than of a true granite.

In the afternoon we encamped among outcrops of trachytic porphyry identical in
character with that of Kalgan. I found here all the kinds seen at Kalgan, includ-
ing a striped variety, and specimens with primary quartz. This porphyry contains
veins and concretions of chalcedony and cornelian.

Dec. 6. Our road lay all day over a rolling country, granitic and syenitic rocks
prevailing, till in the evening we reached the foot of a picturesque granite peak,
the Bogdo oola,^ rising several hundred feet above the surrounding country. To
the west of this we saw a large valley with water or, rather, ice.

An accident detained us here tiU. the next afternoon.

Dec. 7. Started in the afternoon, and after passing the Lamasery of Churin-
chelu, and travelling a few miles along the foot of the Bogdo oola, encamped for
the night.

Dec. 8. Travelled about 20 miles over a rough country. As the ground was
covered with snow, I saw but little of its character, the outcrops seen being all
granitic.

Dec. 9. This day we were again on the undulating country of the plateau and
the great steppe deposit. Near our camping place were many fragments of volcanic
scoriae and of chalcedony.

Dec. 10. Our road was still on the st^pe of yesterday, the surface rising rapidly
toward the north. The rolled detritus on the surface was mostly derived from mica-
schist, and clay slates, and in a ravine I observed the former rock in place. Near
this we entered the hills that limit the steppe, and found them to be of basalt, at
least as far as the camping place.

Dec. 11. This day found us in the range of hills that, trending S. W. from the
Kentei mountains, forms the watershed between the steppes of the Gobi and the
valleys of the Tula and Orkhon rivers, whose waters flow to the Arctic Ocean.

The country is here made up of rounded, grassy hills, of about the same height,
with valleys remarkable for the regularity of their long, unbroken, cross curves.
The hills are of a black, metamorphosed clay schist, and a compact, greenish rock,
chiefly feldspar and quartz, apparently a metam&rphic greenstone. The strike of
the clay rock, where observed, was N. S., and the dip vertical.

The valley bottoms, and the lower slopes of the hills, are covered with a rich,
black earth, the deposit showing no signs of erosion. Our camp this night was in
the Horteryndaban.

Dec. 12. During at least the greater part of the past night we were descending,
and daylight found us in a valley much like that which leads from Kalgan to the
plateau, viz., a narrow, gravelly descending plain, inclosed between hiUs several

* Bogdo, sacred, and oola, mountain.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 75

hundred feet high, and remarkable for their pyramidal forms. The fragments of
rock, both angular and rolled, that cover the valley, were found to be of green clay
schist, the same metamorphic greenstone seen yesterday, and a greenish sandstone.

In the forenoon we reached Urga, also called Kufen, the residence of a living
Buddha.

Dec. 14. Left Urga for Kiachta, which place we reached on the 21st December.
The country between these places was covered with snow, concealing its geological
character. Our road lay through the hills to the eastward from the Orkhon river,
crossing its tributaries, the Kara Gol and the Iro Gol.

Through the first two-thirds of the distance the few outcrops seen were of rocks
similar to those seen near Urga; at Iro Gol I found chloritic granite.

A great steppe deposit, apparently of loose argillaceous sand, fills the vaUeys,
and, extending over the lower parts of the crests of the ridges, leaves the higher
peaks isolated like the islands of an archipelago. This is part of a very extensive
deposit which, from its position here, must be continuous through all the lower
course of the Orkhon. It would seem to be the same deposit that forms the broad
steppe south of Kiachta, and is visible, I think, in the terraces of the Selenga as
far as Lake Baikal, and in the tables on either side of the Angara at Irkutsk.

The barometrical measurements of the Kussian Academicians, MM. Fuss and
v. Bunge, have shown that that part of the continent which they crossed, between
the Great Wall of China and the Siberian frontier, south of Lake Baikal, is an
elevated plateau, bounded on the N. W. and S. E. by mountain ranges from, 5000
to 10,000 feet high, from the sides of which the table-land falls gently toward a
broad level region in the centre, the mean height of which is not more than 2400
feet.

The skeleton of the plateau is thus a great geoclinal valley, trending nearly N. E.,
the basis of which, so far as observed, is formed by granitic rocks, and metamorphic
strata, probably of Paleozoic origin, and the inequalities of which have been nearly
filled up with more recent formations. Of these latter we can, at present, recognize
only three, viz: —

1. The great development of lava along the southern edge.

2. The steppe deposit including the Gobi sandstone.

3. The deposits of loam, mentioned in the preceding pages as covering in places
the steppe deposit.

The lava formation is apparently the oldest of the three. We have seen, in a
former chapter, how a part, at least, of the southeastern edge of the table-land owes
its level surface solely to the great thickness of the volcanic rocks, which have thus
been able to fill up the hollows between the ridges of granite and metamorphic
rocks. The profile, constructed from the measurements^ of MM. Fuss and v. Bunge,
seems to indicate the existence of a terrace from 3000 to 4000 feet high and about
150 miles broad, that forms the S. E. border of the plateau. It is not improbable
that this terrace is due, in great part, to extensive lava flows.

The volcanic rocks of Lake Baikal and of the region to the east, the occurrence

» Ritter.

76 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

of products of this class in place and as scattered fragments at many points on the
route across the plateau, and finally the information derived from Chinese authorities
concerning the existence within historical times of active volcanoes, among the
mountains of Manchuria to the east, and in the Tienshan of the west, aU point to
a development of volcanic activity, which was formerly coextensive with the area
of the present tahle-land. The remains of this action still make themselves felt in
the violent earthquakes that from time to time shake the districts of northern Chihli
and the shores of Lake Baikal.

The greater flows of lavas seem to have been predetermined by the fissures of
dislocation, formed along the borders of the area that was subsequently to be ele-
vated. Such a fissure we have seen marked by a great fault south of the Lakes
Kirnoor and Tehai.

In the present state of our knowledge of this vast region, it is, I believe, impos-
sible to say whether, at the time of the eruption of these rocks, the present depres-
sion of the Gobi was or was not under water. That a portion of the southern edge
of the plateau was not submerged appears from the fact that where the bottom of
the lava formation was visible it was found to rest immediately on the old granitic
and metamorphic rocks. This, however, does not preclude the possibility of the
existence of undisturbed deposits under the steppe sandstones of the Gobi.

The sea in which the great steppe deposit was precipitated was studded with
islands now represented by the ridges and peaks that rise above the plains. The
surface of the plains rises everywhere toward these former islands, partly because the
deposit in its formation adapted itself partially to the original surfaces of the valleys
it fills, and partly from its thickness being increased by the tributary detritus of
the islands. The effect of such a combination of circumstances upon the form of
the surface, has been discussed in treating of the lake deposits of Northern China.
It seems not improbable that the same causes may have operated here as there, in
forming many of those lake valleys, the beds of which rest upon the steppe deposit.

The age of this extensive deposit is a question of much interest. If it is con-
temporaneous with the steppes and terraces of the valley system of the Orkhon and
Angara, it seems probable that the sea which left this deposit over nearly all of
what is now the plateau, was also contemporaneous, within certain limits, with that
great body of water which, extending from the polar ocean to the Caspian, occupied
all Western Siberia.

The fact, to which Baron v. Humboldt^ has called attention, that seals, identical
in species, inhabit the fresh waters of the lakes Baikal and Oron (lat. 55° N., long.
119° E.) and the- Caspian Sea, seems to refer to that period. The Oron lake is a
tributary of the Vitim, and through this of the Lena, in which no seals occur. This
circumstance points very clearly to a former water communication between these
far separated localities, and the time at which the seals of the Oron became isolated
from those of the Baikal and the Caspian falls, perhaps, in the same period with the
emergence of the great plains of Northern and Western Siberia, the deposits of

' Humboldt, Kosmos, IV, p. 456. Stuttgart und Tiibingen, 1858. Pallas. Zoographia Rosso-Asiar
tica, 1818, p. 115.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 77

which are characterized by abundant remains of the mammoth as well as of Bos
urus and EMnoceros ticliorliinus.

We have seen that although the effects of erosion are generally not very extensive
in the steppe deposit, they exist in some places on a large scale. The deeply cut
valley in the Tamchintala is an instance, and one that seemed to me could have been
caused only by fluviatile action. The erosion in the neighborhood of Bilika Noor,
and the presence in the eroded valleys of loam strongly resembling that deposited
by great rivers is another instance. This loam was not often seen, indeed it is
mentioned in my notes only as occurring in the Mingan hills, at BUika Noor, and
^ over the steppe deposit near Goshun.

The closing event in the history of the great sea that in comparatively recent
times covered so large a part of Asia, extending from the pole to the Caspian and
Black sea, and from the Ural mountains to near the Great Wall of China, was the
disappearance of its waters from the long trough that reaches from the shores of the
Arctic sea, through the Barabinsky steppe to the Aralo-Caspian depression.

It appears to me that the ancient physical geography of this vast region, and the
effects of its elevation, present one of the most interesting and important fields of
exploration. Whether we consider the meteorological changes that must have been
brought about by the upheaval of so large an area, or the influence of this great*
water communication and its currents on the distribution of existing genera, the
geological phenomena that have affected this broad belt of the great continent have,
beyond doubt, had an important influence on the recent history of our planet.

In the following table I have recapitulated the few leading events in the geologi-
cal history of China and Mongolia which seem to be recognizable.

78

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

A. Deposition and metamorpliism of the older meta-

morphic strata of China.

B. Deposition of the metamorpic strata of Mongolia.

C. Deposition of the great Devonian limestone for-

mation.

D. Eruption of the older porphyries of the Sishan,

west of Peking.

E. Deposition of the Chinese Coal measures.

F. Eruption of the younger porphyries of the Si-

shan.

{Disturbances.
Uplifts apparently of various ages and
directions, of which the surface effects
are mostly obliterated.

Sinian revolution forming the N.E.

system of uplifts.
Emergence of all China Proper.

S.W.

Submergence of Mongolia.

W. Eruption of the trachytic porphyries of Kalgan

and the Gobi Desert.
X. Eruption of the volcanic rocks of S. Mongolia

and the Baikal region.
Y. Deposition of the steppe deposits of the Gobi

Desert.

Z. Deposition of the lake loam of the northern lakes.
Beginning of the delta of the Hwang Ho.

Commencement of the emergence of the
plateau. Formation of the great dislo-
cation along the southern edge of the
plateau.

Supposed change in the course of the
Hwang Ho, and formation of the chain
of northern lakes.

Deepening of the channel of the Hwang
Ho between Shansi and Shensi, and of
the gorge of the Tang Ho, and conse-
quent drainage of the northern lakes.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 79

CHAPTER IX. »

GEOLOGICAL ITINERARIES OF JOURNEYS IN THE ISLAND OF
YESSO, IN NORTHERN JAPAN.

The following notes were taken during journeys made in the service of the
Japanese Government, in the summer and autumn of 1862. As the very small
population of this northern island is composed almost entirely of fishermen, it is
confined to small villages scattered along the sea-shore. The only roads are those
connecting these hamlets, with the exception of rare bridle-paths penetrating the
interior. The mountains west and north of Volcano bay are covered with dense
forests and a denser undergrowth of a kind of bamboo, so close-set that the country
is impenetrable, excepting by wading in the beds of torrents.

Thus the geologist is obliged to content himself chiefly with the sections exposed
on the sea-shore.

Hakodade, the seat of the Viceroyalty of Yesso and Krafto,^ is at the foot of a
peak about 1,150 feet high, connected with the main island by a low, sandy neck.

The rock that forms this island-like promontory is apparently a pluto-neptunian
product resulting from the metamorphism of trachytic tufas and conglomerate-
breccias. Where I examined it, it consisted of a fine-grained felspathic base,
containing —

1st. Felspar in oblong crystals, from very small to one-third of an inch in length.
These were white, highly fractured, and frequently showed triclinic cleavage.

2d. Quartz in pellucid grains, very irregularly distributed, in places absent, in
others equalling the felspar.

3d. Hornblende in small prisms.

4th. Magnetic iron in grains.

The rock in this locality has somewhat the appearance of having been broken up
and partially refused, but more generally it shows signs of stratification, and I have
referred it to the extensive marine deposit formed out of the debris of volcanic
rocks.^

On the northern slope of the peak is a terrace of recent gravels raised 100 feet
or more above the bay.

Between the hUls of the main island and the sea there lies a plain the* surface of
which slopes gently toward the water, where it terminates in places in high bluffs.

' See Map, PI. 8. " Sagalln of the Russians.

= This is probably the rock described in Com. Perry's Japan Expedition, as granite with crystals
of turmaline.

80 GEOLOGICAL RESBAllCIIES IN

in others in low terrace steps. Near Kameta this terrace is covered with a few feet
of clayey sand, underneath which is a bed of whitish clay used for fine tiles ; more
generally these terraces are a bluish, sandy clay, rich in recent shells, and fringing
the less precipitous shores of most of the Japanese islands.

First Excursion. May 24th, 1862. — Leaving Hakodade we crossed to the main
island by the low neck of land. This is formed by a bar of stiff clay, perhaps of
. the same age as the terrace deposit, which lies a few feet above high-water, and is
covered with drift sand. Along the eastern edge of the neck, the sand has been
raised by the winds into hills, sixty to eighty feet high, the shapes of which change
with every storm, excepting where protected by a sufficient growth of wild rose-
bushes. Behind these hills the ground is swampy, the water finding a very slow
drainage through the sand.

Fig. 9

1. Loam. 2. Marsh. 3. Drift sand. 4. Stiff clay.

Following the beach of the northern shore of the bay for several miles, we
turned off at a small village, and, ascending a creek, entered the fertile valley of
Ono, a broad marshy plain on which are some of the principal farms of the island.
An inferior rice and silk are said to be among the chief produces.

May 25th. — Branching off from the main road, a few miles beyond the village
of Ono, and following a mountain brook, we reached the lead mines of Ichinowatari.

These mines lie at the entrance to a small valley, on the sides of which the out-
cropping rocks, containing the veins, are black and gray argUlites, slightly calcare-
ous, and highly metamorphosed, in alternating beds; the gray rock being apparently
the younger. These are associated with greenstone, whether eruptive or meta-
morphic was not ascertained, which occupies most of the valley to its head. On
the summit of the ridge the greenstone was found by Mr. Blake to be succeeded
by a shale, from which he took a calamite, an-d this again by the black rock already
mentioned.

The veins occur in all of the above rocks ; the p'redominating veinstone being
of magnesite bearing, in nodules, threads, and impregnations, black and yellow
zinc-blende, iron pyrites, galena, and, in places, copper pyrites. The waU rocks are
highly impregnated with small cubes of iron pyrites.

In Japan, as in China, the want of pumping machinery prevents working to any
considerable depth below the adit level. The galleries in this mine were tolerably
weU timbered, but low and narrow. From ignorance of the use of powder in
blasting, their means of attacking the rock were — till the application of powder in
mining was introduced by us — confined to the use of pointed instruments, a miner's
pick with one point, similar to our ovra, a hammer and gad with handle, like the
German Msen, completing the outfit. The ore is roughly assorted by hand, and
then passed under dry stamps. I was not a little surprised to find, in the moun-
tains of Japan, stamps constructed on the same principle as our own, though the
workmanship and efficiency are far inferior.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

81

Tig. 10

An overshot water-wheel turns a slender shaft, armed with long cams, by which
the stamps are raised. These last are ten in number, of wood, about nine feet long
and four inches square, and bear inserted in their lower ends, iron heads from one
and a half to two inches square. Each stamp acts in a separate stone mortar, set
into the ground, and powders thirty kaii,^ or two hundred and fifty pounds of ore
per day of twelve hours. After being stamped the ore is sifted and sent to the
wash-house, where it is concentrated to a very pure schlich by hand washing in
wooden pans. This work is done mostly by women.

The furnace in which the ore is smelted is a cavity in the ground, lined with
charcoal powder kneaded with puddled clay,
forming a hemispherical crucible (&) about 14
inches broad and 10 inches deep, with an
underdrainage. In front is an earthen shield
(c) to reflect the force of the blast, which en-
ters through a clay nozzle (d) from the box-
beUows (e). The greater part of the smoke,
etc., passes off through a large chimney (a).

The crucible is lined with charcoal, and
when fully dried about 80 lbs. of ore is added

and covered with charcoal. When half melted 30 per cent, of pig-iron in lumps of
about an inch cube is added. As soon as about one-half of the galena is freed from
its sulphur, the whole is stirred. After about two hours the coals are withdrawn,
the blast stopped, and water is thrown on the bath to cool the first layer of matte.
This is repeated six or seven times till the surface of the lead is free, when it is
cast in bars, the matte being thrown away.

We~ have in this operation the simplest form of the precipitation process, the
Niederschlag Arbeit of the Germans.

The greatest production at these mines was in 1860, when, during three
months, it averaged about 600 lbs. daily; at the time of my visit it was about
80 lbs.

The running daily expenses of production for this smaU result of 80 lbs. were
nearly as follows .^ —

30 miners, averaging
30 coolies, at
? overseers, at

1 carpenter ....
26 ore dressers, averaging 3 cents

2 stamp tenders, at 4 "

1 smelter ....

2 smelter's assistants, at 4 cents
200 lbs. of charcoal .

30 lbs. of inferior pig-iron,

6 cents $1

8 " 2

5 " . •

80
40
35
8
18
8
8
3

n

16

$5 98

' 1 Kan is equal to about 8 lbs.

" Assuming the ichibu to be worth $0 33.

11 June, 1866.

82 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

The miners working in ore are paid according to the weight and quality of the
ore extracted, receiving one cent for every 10 kans, or 80 lbs. of best rough ore,
and one-half a cent for the same quantity of inferior.

When not working in ore they are paid by the running foot on the gallery
and the hardness of the rock, receiving per running shak,' or foot, 60 cents for the
hardest rock, and 1 4 for the softest, the average at these mines being 30 cents. One
man can advance a gallery one foot, in the hardest rock of these mines, in five days.

The timbering of the levels costs 10 cents per running foot, the wood growing in
the vicinity.

May 28th. Leaving the mines, we returned to the main road, and crossed the
watershed of the peninsula. The rock is concealed, but judging from numerous
fragments on the surface the older rocks of the ridge are covered with volcanic
conglomerate.

About twelve miles to the N. N. E. we saw the half ruined cone of the volcano
Komangadake, also called the Sawaradake. In the valley lying between us and
the peak, lay a picturesque lake surrounded by forests and meadows, and its banks
overhung with a rich vegetation. Beyond lay the beautiful Volcano bay. Descend-
ing from the ridge we passed the lake, and stopped for the night at the small
village of Skunope.

May 29th. Leaving Skunope we started to ascend the volcano. As our way lay
through the forest, coolies were sent ahead to clear a path in the underbrush. For
several miles we were in a dense wood much like a New England forest ; the prevailing
trees being grand specimens of magnolia, beech, birch, maple, and oak, with immense
vines of grape, ivy, etc., clinging to their trunks and hanging from the boughs.

We came out of the forest upon the gentle foot-slope of the mountain, here
covered with a deposit of pumice that extended from where we stood to the sum-
mit, in the shape of a stream several hundred yards broad. Leaving the horses,
and keeping on the pumice, we soon reached the steeper ascent. The sides of the
volcano have been covered with a growth of large trees, where now only dead,
white trunks are left, some standing, but the greater number fallen. Many of these
lay in our path, while some, standing in their original positions, were surrounded
by the subaerial deposit of pumice which reached several feet above the roots.

We reached the edge of the crater at a point below the highest peak.

I was told that the Sawaradake was formerly a single cone, but that seven or
eight years before our visit this fell in, the occurrence being accompanied or pre-
ceded by a severe earthquake, and an eruption of hot water and pumice, the sand
of which was carried by the winds as far as the Kurile Islands.

The crater is now several hundred feet deep, with steep walls, and entirely open
toward- the sea on the east. The bottom is formed by a convex mass of pumice
which extends with an unbroken slope through the opening to the sea-shore.

Great cracks traverse this plain in every direction, distinguishable, from our posi-
tion on the summit, by their raised, yellow edges, forming long ridges, as though
gigantic moles had undermined the plain, and by rows of steam jets

» The shak is about one-fifteenth of an inch shorter than our foot.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 83

The view in the distance is grand. On our left the shore of the beautiful Vol-
cano bay forms a long, sweeping curve, parallel to which the mountains in the
background, covered with dense forests, appear in all the shades of green, blue, and
purple, as they stretch away on the far horizon. Far over the bay, rising as it
were from the sea, are several beautiful cones, long quiet, covered to the summits
• with vegetation, Vs^hile nearer, though seemingly among them, is' the semi-active
Usu, a ruined cone whose yellow, sulphur-coated cliffs glisten even at this distance.

We descended into the crater by a talus of pumice, and crossing to the north
side came to the edge of a secondary crater, or pit, in the plain. This was
about 600 feet in diameter, with precipitous sides on which the stratification of the
mass of pumice that fills the bottom of the great crater is distinctly visible.

From the bottom and sides of this pit columns of steam were rising, incrusting
the walls with crystals of sulphur and salts. This inner crater must have been
formed after the falling in of the cone, and was, perhaps, the point of exit of the
ashes that fell after the breaking in of the peak.

On examining the long fissures that traverse the plain, their sides were found
incrusted with delicate crystals of sulphur and sulphate salts, while the pumice
walls were half turned to a bright red clay, impregnated with these crystals.
Putting my thermometer, which was graduated only to 80° C, into the steam, the
mercury instantly ran up to that point.

The recent covering of pumice conceals, in most places, the true structure of
the mountain, as it forms a deep mantle over every slope not too steep to retain
it. This product is grayish-white, very irregular in its porous structure, and con-
tains numerous crystals of felspar and grains of a translucent, greenish glass. It is
undergoing rapid disintegration. Bombs of black scoria were found containing
crystals of white felspar, and showing transition, in streaks, into pumice character-
ized by the same contents as that just described.

Blocks of a grayish trachytic lava, abounding in crystals of triclinic felspar and
grains of the greenish glass, mentioned above, occur in the crater, and seem to be
the rock of which the pumice and bombs are a variety.

The western side of the crater wall is the highest, and owes its better preserva-
' tion to a broad dyke of rock consisting mainly of a dark paste with greenish-white
crystals of triclinic felspar, hornblende, and magnetic iron. The dyke has a tabular
structure, the plates being upright in the middle and horizontal on the sides, form-
ing there a right angle -w^th the cooling surface, as is the case with columnar struc-
ture. The rock traversed by this dyke was found very much disintegrated.

Without visiting the top of the northern waU we could clearly distinguish the
original outer mantle of the volcano, in the exposed edges of different colored strata,
while just under the top of the western wall a stratified remnant of what was pro-
bably the old cone remained. The greater part of at least the western and northern
walls appear to be of trachytic rock.

The general appearance of this mountain produced upon me the impression that
it had, before this, been a ruined cone, but was rebuilt by an eruption of pumice to
be again broken down and given over to the levelling solfatara-action.

Descending by the same route we returned to Skunope.

84 aEOLOGICAL RESEAECHES IN

May 31st. Leaving Skunope in the morning, we travelled northward, first through
a thickly wooded, swampy district, with corduroy road, then over a soil of volcanic
ashes, tUl we finally reached the .sea-shore, when turning eastward, we skirted the
northern foot of the volcano, and crossing the outlet of the lake reached the fishing
village of Shkabe.

The northern slope of the mountain was formerly covered with timber reaching
high up its side, and now represented by a forest of dead trunks extending over
thousands of acres. The trees were probably killed by the shower of pumice which
covered the surface to the depth of from six inches to two feet. On a large pro-
portion of the trees the bark is intact, and they show no signs of the action of fire.
A fresh undergrowth was springing up, at the time of our visit, and of this the
climbing plants seem to have been the first to start into life.

In the side of a gulley in the bluff, I observed the following series from younger
to older: —

1. Layer of pumice, two feet thick.

2. Vegetable mould with roots of grass six inches.

3. Layer of pumice, three to five feet.

4. Thin layers of pumice and sand, apparently an ancient beach.

5. Volcanic conglomerate-breccia.

This section is repeated in all the cuttings observed at the foot of the volcano.

At Shkabe there are several hot springs used for bathing. One of these, rising
on the beach and bubbling strongly, has a temperature of 75° C. ; and in another
rising in a cold stream, but protected by wooden tubbing, I found 70°. The water
of these springs has a slight odor of sulphuretted hydrogen.

June 1st. Soon after leaving Shkabe we passed an outcrop of quartziferous por-
phyry, showing columnar structure, and remarkable for its richness in double pyra-
mid crystals of pellucid quartz associated with white felspar in a compact gray paste.
The volcanic conglomerate-breccia was the prevailing rock, but in places the bluff
was formed of an apparently younger deposit of sandy clay. The beach was in
many places covered with a layer of magnetic iron sand, from the disintegrated
volcanic rocks, well concentrated by the action of the surf.

From Shkabe eastward many fragments of vein quartz were seen on the beach.

At the mouth of the Kakumi creek we left the sea-shore, and following the wild
vaUey rode a few miles inland to the mines of Kakumi. Here the hills are formed of
greenish and gray argillaceous rocks in places brecciatedj'^n others metamorphosed
to an euritic rock. These are traversed by dykes of a peculiar white porphyry.

This porphyry has a compact paste, generally very white, sometimes gray or
greenish, yielding fire with difiiculty with the steel. In this are scattered grains,
and especially double pyramid crystals, of quartz, which form from a few per cent,
to one-third the volume. In rare instances it contains crystals of a white triclinic
felspar. Mica and hornblende are never present and rarely chlorite. It contains
almost always small cubes of iron pyrites.

In weathering it changes to a white kaolin-like substance often discolored by the
oxidation of the pyrites.

It occurs in dykes, and often shows columnar structure.

^

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 85

Porphyry of a similar character occurs at several points on the island.

Ascending the creek, greenstone was found to succeed to the argillaceous rock,
and seems to be the only formation for at least several miles up the valley. In this
are the copper bearing veins, six or eight inches thick, of quartz, containing iron
and copper-pyrites, a little zincblcnde, and some calcspar in cavities. The mine
had only been opened a short distance.

Near the house there is a warm spring, with a temperature of 48° C, rising in
the argillaceous rock.

June 4th. Leaving Kakumi, in the afternoon, we rode about three miles to the
fishing village of Wosatzube.

Just east of the village is a promontory formed by an outcrop of beds of black
hornstone.

Hornstone Strata. Cape Wosatzube.

This rock is stratified in well-defined layers from a few inches to several feet in
thickness. It has a velvety-black color, more rarely with lighter shades, breaks
with conchoidal fracture, and shows, when wetted, a lamellar structure the layers
of which are thin as paper, of black and dark-gray shades. In places it is slightly
brecciated, the interstices being fiUed with opalescent chalcedony in layers of
infiltration.

I may add that the Japanese mining oiScials who accompanied us, stated that a
similar rock occurs in close connection with the coal beds on the eastern coast of
Yesso. The trend of the strata at Wosatzube is N. 40 W., the general dip being
northeasterly.

Off" the point just described is a spring which bubbles up from the bottom, very
strongly at low water, and quite visibly at high tide.

June 5th. The country east of Wosatzube being impassible for horses, we em-
barked in a boat propelleti by sixteen rowers, and after a voyage of between three
and four hours reached the fishing vUlage of Totohoke. The scenery was very
grand, as the coast is here formed by a wall several hundred feet high, and washed
by the sea at its base. Innumerable waterfalls, some of them very high, and all
beautiful, were seen at the heads of ravines, of falling like veils over the high coast
bluffs. These cascades occur along the entire Japanese coast', and the early navi-
gator Vriess mentions them at almost every step in his narrative.

The rock forming this coast wall seems to be volcanic tufa-conglomerate, with
lava dykes. On examining the rock of the bluff west of Totohoke, it was found to
be indistinctly stratified and made up of round and angular fragments of trachytic
lava inclosed in a gray matrix more or less hard, with earthy fracture, and contain-

86 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

ing perfect crystals of hornblende and altered felspar, with scattered grains of quartz.
The rock often presented in the fresh fracture aU the appearance of an earthy lava,
its detrital origin being most apparent on the weathered surface. The stratification
dips northward toward the sea.

Totohoke lies at the foot of the volcano Esan.

June 6 th. We ascended on horseback to the crater of Esan volcano, which forms
the eastern point of the peninsula.

This, also, is a solfatara, its latest eruptions, of which there is no record, having
been confined to flows of sulphurous mud. No pumice was seen, and the fragments
of rock that formed the ejecta were of the same character as the walls of the crater,
excepting some blocks that seemed to be pieces of the white quartz porphyry found
at Kakumi, which had been torn from the interior of the mountain.

The crater, which seemed to be larger than that of the Sawaradake, is divided
unequally by a high ridge of detritus. The walls, where observed in our passing
examination, were found to be so altered by the constant action of acid vapors, as
to render the character of the original rock very obscure, but I thought myself able
to trace a similarity, through a series of specimens, between this and the more com-
mon ejected blocks. These latter consist of a dark gray cellular lava of porphy-*
roidal texture. The crystals of felspar, which are numerous, are changed to a
white earth, isolated specimens still retaining numerous crystals of hornblende ; but
the most characteristic feature is the abundance of quartz. This last mineral is
present in well-defined, double pyramid crystals and in grains one-eighth to one-
third of an inch in diameter. The grains are both limpid and milky white, and
opalescent. They are highly fractured, and often present the appearance of having
contracted and cracked in passing from a gelatinous to a hardened condition. There
is often a strong resemblance between these rocks and the fragments inclosed in
the tufa-conglomerate of Totohoke.

The walls of the crater are rapidly disintegrating and falling, to be converted
into clay impregnated with sulphur, alum, and other salts. Everywhere the scene
is one of ruin. Here is visible on a grand scale the decomposing action of sulphur-
ous acid and steam, the effects of which we see in the altered trachytic rocks of
Hungary, and still progressing on a small scale in the Neapolitan solfatara. No-
where have I seen so well exhibited the levgUing power of nature when she brings
into action her more active agents.

Steam surrounds us, issuing in jets from fissures on the sides of the crater, and
rising slowly, as smoke from a smouldering fire, out of the taluses of debris. But
the main vents are small, mud craters or geysers. Those which we visited were in
the centre of one of the divisions of the crater. They were springs or pits, each
covered by a great vault of hardened mud, like an immense bubble or an inverted
bowl, from ten to twenty-five feet high, the sides and roof from six inches to two
feet thick.

These quake with the constant reverberation of the struggling steam and mud,
which last, judging from the sound, must rise to near the surface. The inner sur-
faces of these vaults are lined with sulphur in massive layers, in crystals, and often
in long stalactites, and the vapor is highly charged with sulphuretted hydrogen.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

87

While we were here drops of scalding mud were incessantly thrown out, but
regular mud flows appear to be very rare.

The superintendent of the sulphur works informed me that when new vents
open, mud and large blocks of rock are thrown out with much violence. Such
blocks cover the interior of the crater, and have been already mentioned ; they are
frequently almost entirely decomposed by the action of the gases.

From an extinct vent I traced a stream of mud, following the bed of a gully,
for several hundred yards. It is hard, compact, and fiUed with small crystalline
needles of sulphur, the longer direction of which was found to be invariably at
right angles to the nearest surface, by which either the heat or moisture, or both,
escaped. These crystals occur equally distributed throughout the mass the whole
length of the stream, and produce, on a small scale, a tendency to columnar struc-
ture. They cannot, considering their position, have been crystallized until the
mud was quiescent and hardening, and as the solidification depended on the escape
of the moisture that rendered it fluid, it forms, I think, a good illustration of the
fact that columnar structure is not necessarily a result of cooling, but rather of the
escape of the " vehicle of fluidity," whether this be heat or water, or, as here, both
combined.

The stream in question appears to be the result of a single flow fiUing the
inequalities in the bottom of the gully, and is in places several feet deep.

The government has large sulphur works on this mountain, with which the pro-
duction of alum was formerly combined. The material used, from which the sul-
phur is extracted, is the debris formed by the ever-faUing walls of the crater, and
which is said to contain from 25 to 50, and even 60, per cent, of the mineral, in
layers and impregnated through the mass.

Without further preparation than being broken with the hammer, this raw
material is put into three iron pots over a fire. Each of these vessels is composed
of two parts, a cylinder and a hemispherical bottom or pot on which it stands, the
whole being about two and a half feet deep and two feet in diameter. After melt-
ing, the impurities seem to settle to the bottom, and the top is ladled out into shal-

Fig. 12

Pots.

6 Fireplaces.

c Shallow depressions.

low depressions in the ground. When this is cooled, it is a hardened mud filled
with crystals of sulphur in needles, their longer axes at a right angle to the surface
of the cooled mass, and the whole product differs from the mud described above, as

88 GEOLOGICAL llESEArvCIIES IN

having flowed from a vent, only in that the artificial product is richer in sulphur.
In this instance the "vehicle of fluidity" was undoubtedly heat acting through
melted sulphur.

This first rough product is remelted in similar pots, and then filtered through sacks,
at first allowing the liquid sulphur to pass, by its own weight, and finally squeezing
it gently under a lever. From these filters it falls into tubs the shape of which it
retains on cooling. The blocks thus obtained are broken, and the cooling surface,
to the depth of two inches, being of a dark color, and, perhaps, less pure, is remelted
to obtain yellow sulphur ; the interior of the blocks is yellow and highly crystalline.

The produce at the time of our visit was about 5,600 lbs. daily. The ofl[icials
stated in round numbers that, everything included, the cost of producing 32,000 lbs.
was about 80 rios, or $103, the same quantity bringing about |385 at the Hako-
dade market.

The iron pots cost for the top pieces $2 66 each ; for the bottoms $6 60. The
bottoms last from 30 to 60 days.

Continuing our journey we descended the western slope of the mountain to
Nitanai, on the sea-shore.

June 7th. Leaving Nitanai, we rode along the sea-shore to Kobi. Near Nitanai
we passed the outcrop of a bed of white infusorial earth raised several yards above
the sea. The reader is referred to Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter ( App. No. 3) for the
highly interesting results of his examination of this material under the microscope.
Mr. Edwards has discovered a close resemblance between the organisms contained
in this deposit, and those of the stratum under Richmond and Petersburg, Va. ; and
a still greater similarity to those of the extensive deposit along the California coast,
the resemblance in the latter instance extending even to identity of species among
the DiatomacecB.

At Kobi an attempt had been made to smelt the magnetic iron sand from the beach
in a blast furnace of the foreign pattern. One of our party, Mr. Takeda, a Japanese
officer of rank, who has done much to advance, in his country, the knowledge of
military engineering and navigation, was commanded by the Imperial Government
to construct a large furnace for smelting iron ore after the foreign method. Such
a thing had never been seen by a Japanese, but without further plans or specifica-
tions than he found in a Dutch work on chemistry, Mr. Takeda built a furnace about
thirty feet high, after a very fine model, with cylinder blast moved by an excellent
water wheel. Unfortunately, owing to the absence of all details on the subject in
the only book he had, the blast obtained was only a fraction of that required, and the
bricks used in the construction were not sufficiently refractory. Thus the aff'air was
a failure after smelting a few hundred weight of iron. The incident, however, is
an illustration of Japanese enterprise. I will add that the experiment was repeated
by order of the Prince of Nambu, in order to work an excellent ore of magnetic
iron on his property, and furnace after furnace built, from 20 to 30 feet high, until
successful campaigns of several months' duration were obtained.

At Kobi, besides the iron sand of the beach, there is an elevated, ancient beach,
now from 50 to 100 feet above the sea, containing a bed of iron ore of a similar
origin, the lower half cemented by oxidation to a solid mass, and changing to

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 89

brown oxide, the upper portion less oxidized, and retaining more of the original
character.

How many deposits of iron ores may there not be that owe their formation to a
similar cause, the destruction of ancient eruptive or metamorphic rocks, and the
concentration of their grains of magnetic iron on the surf-washed beaches of former
seas 1

A few miles further on we came to the outcropping clay slates, which continue,
as the tide-washed rock, as far as ShiAvokubi (Cape Blunt). From this point on,
as far as Oyasu, they are also exposed along the beach and form the hills inland,
but are covered between the sea and the hills by the recent terrace deposit, which
we have already seen bordering the Bay of Hakodade.

This slate is black and fissile, and is covered, near Shiwokubi by conformable
strata of compact sandstone with interstratified seams of slate, and at Oyasu by a
sandstone conglomerate containing fragments of the same older rock. These beds
are more or less contorted, all the observed strikes of the uplift lying between W.
and N. 15° W., averaging nearly N. W.

They are traversed by a great number of dykes of porphyry and greenstone, and
by innumerable veins of quartz with pyrites of iron and, in places, of copper.

The porphyry is of the same white quartziferous variety as that at Kakumi, and
the same description will do for both. The dykes are very sharply defined, from
10 to 50 feet thick, cutting the slates at all angles. The porphyry is in turn tra-
versed by dykes of greenstone.

The quartz veins cut the slates at all angles, and vary in thickness from 2 to
12 feet. They abound in iron pyrites, one vein four feet thick being massive
sulphuret. Some of them were traced between one and two miles inland, the
pyrites changing to oxide away from the sea-shore. An outcropping vein at
Saidoma showed some very fair ore of copper pyrites associated with iron pyrites,
zincblende, and a little scattered galena. The strike of these veins is generally
between N. and E., and one of the smaller ones traverses a dyke of porphyry.

It was in one of these that we made the first blast ever fired in Japan.

Between Shiwokubi and Hakodade, a broad mesa separates the hills from the sea,
rising gently to near the mountain, and then rapidly, and cut into by all the streams
descending from the hills. It is covered with a dense growth of weeds but no trees,
the latter being confined, along this part of the straits of Tsungara, to the northern
slopes of the hills.

At Yunogawa there is an outcrop of black clay slate in which rises a warm
spring with a temperature of 38° C.

Entering Hakodade we finished the circuit of the peninsula.

The region thus encircled by our route is a high ridge apparently consisting, in
the main, of the metamorphic rocks which have been described as occurring along
the sea-shore, having a general northwesterly trend, accompanied by intrusive
masses of greenstone and quartziferous porphyries. It is fringed on its northern
slope by volcanic tufa-conglomerates that rise, in places, to the lower summits of the
crest, and on the southern edge by recent marine strata. I will add that coal is
said to have been found in the hills near Mt. Esan.

12 June, 1866.

90 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Excursion to the West Coast.

August 5, 1862. This day and the following one our route was about the same
as on the preceding journey, as far as Volcano bay, where, branching oif, we
stopped at Washinoki for the night,

August 7th. Leaving Washinoki, we found, just west of the village, an outcrop,
visible at low tide, of the tufa-conglomerate. It contained fragments of pumice
and spines of an echinoderm. The beds are tilted up, the strike being N. 5° W.
and the dip easterly.

A little further on we came to an outcrop of nearly vertical beds of a gray argil-
lite, containing a peculiar fossil, having the shape of flattened vermiform tubes and
changed to calcite. This organism although indeterminable- is characteristic for
this argillite, and served to distinguish the rock even when highly metamorphosed
at many points on our journey.

I wiU mention here that between the bay and the mountains west of it, a strip
several miles broad is occupied by a recent deposit, similar to that bordering Hako-
dade bay, and receding in terraces from the water Avhich it faces with a blufi" 30
to 80, or more, feet high. This deposit generally hides all the older rocks.

Contkiuing our journey along the beach, we found the tufa-conglomerate again in
place underlying the terrace deposit.

Passing Otoshibetz,^ the beach is overhung by the terrace bluff, here from 60 to
80 feet high. This recent deposit is a horizontally stratified, sandy clay, abounding
in marine shells, chiefly bivalves. Although most of the shells were too friable to
be collected, many seemed to have retained a large part of their organic matter,
and in several instances I found the dorsal ligament still elastic when wet.

At Yamukshinai, just back from the beach, between this and the bluff, there is a
marsh some acres in extent, in which tepid springs deposit a mineral oil of the con-
sistency of tar, which is used by some priests, in the neighborhood, both for burning
and in making ink of the kind used throughout China and Japan.

Passing through a settlement of Ainos Ave reached Yurup.

August 8th. The terrace bluff recedes from the sea at Yurup, forming a bight
which is occupied by a broad plaiti, often marshy, covered with a dense growth of
reeds and weeds, twelve to fourteen feet high. Through this plain winds the large
creek Yurup.

Crossing this stream we followed the beach to Shirarika. Here there is an out-
crop on the beach of a black amygdaloid, containing small spherical cavities lined
with a white, transparent, tabular zeolite, and veins and nodules of chalcedony.

Continuing our journey over a plain, now sandy, now marshy, which, at the
height of 10 or 20 feet above the sea, forms a narrow belt between the beach and
the bluff, we reached Kunnui. The terraces seen during this day were covered
with a fine forest growth of deciduous trees and scattered tall pines.

Leaving the sea-shore at Kunnui, we ascended the creek of the same name to a
low pass in the crest, which here forms the watershed between Volcano bay and the
Japan sea.

» The termination belz and nai are Aino words signifying river and creek or brook.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 91

The only formation seen was the terrace deposit, till near the divide, when an
obscure green wacke was found in place, and near this a greenish-black amygdaloid.
Large blocks of granite were also seen here, and this rock is probably in place
near by.

Descending to the west we entered the valley of the Toshibetz, a large creek,
navigable with small, flat boats, and soon reached the gold washings of Kunnui.

This part of the valley occupies a broad depression, perhaps*! 5 miles long by 7
broad, and raised several hundred feet above the sea. It has been filled with the
recent terrace deposit, and subsequently eroded in part, after which an extensive
deposit of auriferous gravels, etc., has taken place over at least a considerable part
of the area.

In one of the side valleys the older rocks are exposed, and here the gold bear-
ing drift was found resting, in different places, on an argillite similar to that seen at
Washinoki, and containing the same vermiform fossils, in strata striking N. 85° W.,
and dipping 50° northerly, and on an amygdaloid similar to that on the divide.
Not far from here the terrace deposit overhangs the creek in a high blufi". Out
of the base of this precipice I obtained a number of well-preserved fossil shells. In
the same bed were found Ostreae, Pecten, Scalaria, Terebratula, Nuculinal Serpulal
Corals, Bryozoa, and fragments of a thick shell with cross-fibrous structure. Some
of the shells retained, at least in part, their organic matter and nacreous lustre,
and one species of Pecten appeared to be identical with a species living in the
adjacent seas.

At one end of this blufi" is a large rock of the amygdaloid in place, which has
been exposed by the erosion of the terrace deposit, and on it are incrustations of
Serpulse.

This amygdaloid contains masses of a green rock resembling jasper, in which are
scattered flakes of native copper. Blocks of manganese (binoxide) in the immediate
neighborhood seem also to have come from the amygdaloid.

The auriferous gravel occurs along both sides of the river in the form of a plain,
which descending gently from the hills faces the stream with a bluff. The whole
district appears to have been worked in former times, though when appears to be
unknown. Broad and deep canals of considerable length were dug to bring water
from up the creek, and a well arranged system of " ditch diggings" seems to have
been carried on. All these workings are covered with a dense growth of trees,
apparently not differing from the surrounding forest; some seen in the ditches being
as much as eighteen inches in diameter. The method of washing the gold does not
seem to have differed from that now used by the Japanese.

The principal rocks, that have contributed to form the auriferous drift, are varie-
ties of granite, chloritic and micaceous schists, quartzites, and amygdaloid, with
geodes of chalcedony from the last mentioned rock. RoUed fragments of binoxide
of manganese are frequent also, perhaps derived from the amygdaloid. The con-
centrated sand of the washing is principally magnetic iron associated with zircon
sand.

The manner of working the deposit is ingenious, and will be understood by
referring to the annexed diagrams.

92

GEOLOGICAL HESEARCHES IN

a. Reservoir. 6. Sluice-ditch, u. Rubble of the drift, d. Aurif. drift, e. Creek. /. Bedrock, g. Mats.

At the place- where I saw this process, the surface of the bed rock, in this case
the marine terrace deposit, was sufficiently high above the creek to give a rapid fall
in the sluice-ditch.

The bed of a rivulet is chosen for the work. A reservoir (a) is dug and
dammed, and the bed of the rivulet (h) cleaned out and made regular. This done,
the banks {d) are broken down into the stream where the force of the current con-
centrates the gravel, carrying off the sand and clay. The workmen then place
themselves in pairs up and down the stream near and below the broken-down bank.
Each man is provided with a coarse mat, about two feet long by one foot broad,
which he places lengthwise in the stream, keeping it down with one foot on the
lower end, at the same time partially stemming the current. He then hoes the
gravel on to the mat, much of the old gravel going off below as fresh arrives from
up stream.

At intervals the mat is carefully removed and washed out into a very shallow tray
or batea (Fig. 15), a board about eighteen inches long by a foot broad, hollowed out,
and having a circular depression near one end for the concentrated head. Of the

black sand obtained on this board, the head contain-
ing the gold is saved.

In this manner the gravel is pretty well exhausted
of its gold, very little being obtained by the men
farthest down the stream. The working progresses
sidcAvays, into the banks, and up stream, the current
being kept near the banks as these recede from the
centre of the stream. As the space between the
banks widens, the coarser material that resists the
force of the water is thrown up into a pile of loose
masonry (c) which increases in length and breadth as the work advances.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAP AX. 93

Numerous remains of ancient workings, by this method, are found in the neigh-
borhood.

Throughout this region the forest is dense ; among the trees I noticed ehns and
a wild mulberry with black fruit. Fierce, large flies, of two kinds not seen on the
sea-shore, swarm in these woods, covering horse and rider, and leaving bleeding
wounds wherever they strike. The creek abounds in mountain trout and salmon.

August 14:th. Returning to Kunnui on the sea-shore, we followed the beach to
the village of Woshimanbe.

August 15th. At this village we left the bay to cross over to the west coast. For
several miles the road lay over the terrace belt, here covered with drift. At the
di\ide we found a broad, marshy tract through which a large creek winds on its
way to the Japan sea. This stream we descended in a small flatboat.

The prevailing rock across this low part of the ridge was, so far as I could judge,
an argillaceous deposit, apparently the same that forms the terraces.

The forest contained, chiefly, large beech, birch, and maple trees, with oaks and
scattered firs, and the usual dense undergrowth of cane. The banks of the streams
were lined with water willows. The creeks abound in trout, and the gravelly bot-
tom is often nearly hidden by colonies of unio. As we approached the bay of Odaszu
the country became more open, and leaving the creek we descended over two ter-
races of drift to the village of Odaszu on the sea.

The southern shore of this small bay is shallow and shelving, with a broad beach ;
but the eastern and western sides are rocky, the rocky bluff's descending into the
sea, a feature common to aU the west coast, so far as we followed it, and indeed to
the shores of all the Japanese islands.

August 16th. Leaving Odaszu we continued our journey northward along the
coast. Here, also, high, terraces face the sea, but they are formed of the tufa-con-
glomerate formation, the level surface being due to a recent deposit of gravel and
sand. This conglomerate is traversed near Odaszu by dykes of a dark gray rock,
much weathered, containing crystals of a triclinic felspar, and opalescent chalce-
dony. The conglomerate at Isoya is traversed by dykes of an amorphous rock
containing crystals of triclinic felspar.

Near Isoya there is a deposit consisting of beds of sandstone, argillaceous mate-
rial, and volcanic ashes,^ with fragments of pumice, and also of the argillite which
has been mentioned as occurring at Washinoki and Kunnui with a vermiform'
fossil. The pieces of pumice contain beautiful double-pyramid crystals of quartz.
This deposit is younger than the neighboring tufa-conglomerate, which had suffered
much from erosion before the deposition of the beds in question. It continues
northward till it abuts against a mass of volcanic rock, that forms the headland
south of the mouth of the Shiribetz river. This stream rises nearly north of Cape
Edomo, and flows westward through a fine, broad valley. AU the gravel brought
down by the river seemed to be trachytic detritus.

' For the interesting results of a microscopic examination of this material, see Mr. Edwards' Letter
(spec. No. 11), Appendix 3.

94 GBOLOGICALRESEAROHESIN

Crossing the valley of the Shiribetz we came to the foot of the Kaiden promon-
tory, a bold headland presenting vertical cliffs toward the sea, and apparently made
np of lava flows and tufa-conglomerate. In crossing this mountain we frequently
found fragments of a black scoria with long-drawn cells.

After a laborious journey of several hours we descended into a deep and gloomy
gorge containing a warm spring. Here again we found the same variety of white
quartziferous porphyry that we had seen at Kakumi and elsewhere. It is im-
pregnated with iroji pyrites which in places is represented only by cubical cavities
containing sulphur. The rock traversed by this porphyry is of a brecciated argil-
laceous character, resembling that at Kakumi. It is from this rock that the springs
flow, with a temperature varying, in different ones, from 46° to 50° C. These rocks
are exposed only in the bottom of the ravine, on either side of which they are
covered by the volcanic formation.

August 17th. Rising from the ravine we continued our journey over the northern
part of the Eaiden, the outcrops here, as yesterday, being of a gray trachytic lava
with a tendency to tabular structure. This continued till we descended at the creek
Nibitzunai to a terrace that reaches many miles northward and eastward, low near
the sea, but rising rapidly toward the mountains. Skirting this for a few miles
we reached Iwanai.

August 18th. At Iwanai we left the sea and made an excursion to the volcano
Iwaounobori^ about thirteen miles inland.

The first five miles of the road lay over the terrace which, as we approached the
mountains, rose very rapidly. During the first mile or two, after leaving the sea,
the surface was covered with a dense growth of long-jointed grass, six or seven feet
high, to which succeeded the usual forest of large maples, oaks, mountain and white-
ash, beech, birch, fir, and scattered magnolias, filled in with an impenetrable under-
growth of cane eight to twelve, and even fifteen feet high. The road through this
region, being deep with mud which was full of sharp pointed stumps of the cane,
was one of the wotst I have ever seen.

Entering the mountains we passed through a crateriform vaUey, once the bed of
a lake, and, ascending to a pass in the hills beyond, we saw, beneath us, a beautiful
little lake. On the other side of this rose the volcano, or rather solfatara, with its
yellow, sulphur-coated cliffs. Here again the regular slopes and symmetrical out-
lines of an undisturbed cone are entirely wanting; the outer as well as the inner
walls were rocky precipices, and the ruin seemed greater than at Esan. We reached
the summit without much difficulty.

The present mountain is evidently only part of the skeleton of a former cone of
large size. The predominating formation, from the spurs at the base to the summit,
is a dark gray volcanic rock, showing in places a tendency to stratiform structure,
and apparently of the trachytic family, the chief ingredient being crystals of a
white felspar.^ The former mantle seems to be still represented by fragmentary

* Japanese. Iwaou, sulphur; and nobori, a term for mountain, from noboru, to climb.
" With the exception of one specimen of rock, and a few minerals, the entire collection of rocks,
fihells, etc. from north of Odaszu, was lost by the wreck of a junk on the way to Hakodade.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN.

95

remains of a stratified deposit seen liere and there, about the base, and fragments
of scorise were found in the neighborhood.

There are several small crateriform depressions at different points near the
summit, filled to the level of the lip with sand and clay, and forming -small plains
surrounded by rocky sides. In one of the walls a compact black rock, either a
dyke or the remnant of a lava flow, was observed.

The Iwaounobori is the central one of three volcanoes, which lie in a straight
line running about N. N. W., S. S. E., and this is also the trend of a broad belt,
within the limits of which the solfatara action is most developed, both across the
summit and on the outer walls.

Throughout this belt the rock, wherever not covered by the products of decom-
position, is found to be traversed by countless fissures, more or less filled with
sulphur. Wherever the filling is incomplete, small jets of steam and gases are still
seen to issue forth. Several trials, made by inserting a long chemist's thermometer
as far as possible into difiierent fissures, gave a constant temperature of 98° C.

The steam has a strong odor of both sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen.
It has an acid reaction on litmus paper, which is especially strong when the con-
densed drops, that hang on the sulphur crystals in the cavities, are tested. Beau-
tiful crystals of sulphur, a quarter of an inch long, were rapidly formed on the bulb
of the thermometer.

Excepting at the steam vents, which are not more than from one to five inches
in diameter, the fissures are closed up with sulphur at the surface, but by breaking
away a few inches deep, cavities are exposed lined with a bristling mass of most
beautiful straw-colored crystals of this mineral, made up of brilliant steep pyramids
connected in the line of the longer axis. Unfortunately, they were too delicate to
bear transportation.

On a precipitous part of the outer wall of the mountain, where a large mass of
rock seemed recently to have fallen ofi", I saw an interesting exhibition of the action
of the gases. The rock is seen to be
traversed by a perfect network of sulphur
veins (a) which seem to occupy the posi-
tions of the cracks common to all rock.
The trachytic rock (b) is tolerably weU
preserved in the centre of the blocks, but
toward the circumference it is more and
more disintegrated, and has assumed the
form of concentric layers, the outer shell
being changed to a white earth. It seems
not improbable that this condition may
exist through a large part of the moun-
tain, thus forming a great ^tockwerh of
sulphur. ^

The only way in which I can account for this structure is, by supposing that the
disintegration of the rock, which formerly occupied the spaces now filled with
sulphur, took place when the water, which now appears only as steam, stood at a

a. Sulphur. J. Book.

DG

GEOLOGICAL IlESEARCnES IN

Kg. ir

higher level in the mountain, making it a mud volcano, like Esan, and exuding the
products of decomposition as fast as formed. On the vfithdrawal of the water to
a lower level the abandoned network of fissures was filled by the decomposition of
sulphuretted hydrogen.

At another place, in the walls of one of the small craters near the summit, there is
an instance that would seem to illustrate the action of the gases and steam without
the presence of water as such. The black rock, already mentioned as occurring in
the wall of one of the craters, is visible in different stages of alteration. In places
it was observed to have the concentric structure assumed by many rocks during the

first period of disintegration, and by which the
polygonal form of the blocks, into which all bodies
of rock are subdivided, is lost as each succeeding
shell is removed. In this case the outer shell is
white and earthy. Again the same rock was found
altered to the centre of each block, the shape re-
maining, to a soft, pasty, white clay, quite tasteless.
Often in the centre of a snowy white mass of this
clay would lie a core, equally soft, but black, the
line of separation between the colors being well
marked. In places, where the alteration was in the
first stage, an alum salt was found forming an efflo-
rescence on the surface of this black rock, possibly as one of the first products from
the decomposing felspar.

An emerald-green soft mineral occurs incrusting, to the depth -of a line or more,
the walls of the gully where these phenomena were observed.

On the west side of the peak, in the valley which drains the craters, there was
formerly a spring of chalybeate water, which has left quite a deposit of oxide of
iron filled with the leaves of a cane, apparently of the same species that covers the
surrounding country. At present there is no cane on this part of the mountain,
although it grows within a few hundred yards of the spot. This space, which is
bare of cane, abounds in Winter-green (Gaultheria) with white berries.

In close proximity to this deposit a white altered rock, filled with threads of
sulphur, attests the former action of the gases in this spot which is now removed
fiom the nearest field of activity.

From the summit of the Iwaounobori I counted fifteen mountains, all of which
seemed to be of volcanic origin. Among these I include Esan, Sawaradake, and
Oussu, aU solfataras, which, from their ruined condition, I would not have recog-
nized as volcanoes at this distance had I not known them to be such.

A few miles away to the S. S. E., beyond the broad vaUey of the river Shiribetz,
rose a magnificent cone also called the Shiribetz. This cone is the most symmetri-
cal of any that I have seen, not excepting the beautiful Fuziyama, the pride of the
Empire. Of^its height I had no means of judging, but I thought it could not be
less than 6000 feet. It rises from a broad plain, at least the slopes visible to us
merged gently into the sweeping cross curves of the valley of the Shiribetz river.
The unbroken surface of its sides was covered from base to summit with vegetation,

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 97

either forest or cane, which appeared to us in the distance like a mantle of green
velvet. Many other well-shaped cones were visible in the distance.

Just N. N. W. of the Iwaounobori there is a cone somewhat lower than the peak
of the solfatara, with a well preserved crater, so near that it seems to be partly within
the circumference of the foot-slope of the Iwaou mountain. As I have said before,
it is in a line with its neighbor and the Shiribetz, and this direction is repeated
in the zone of the solfatara activity on the Iwaou mountain, a coincidence that would
seem to point to a fissure connection between the three peaks.

The government has sulphur works on this mountain, in which fourteen caldrons
are kept at work. The production is about 64,000 pounds per month, costing for —
Labor of all kinds and for fuel per month . . . $*r4 50

Rice for workmen . . . .
Salt and miso for workmen
Straw sandals for workmen
Transportation by horse to Iwanai

41 00
4 00
6 50

5t 25

$183 25

Total for 64,000 pounds

August 20th. We returned to Iwanai.

August 21st. Continuing our journey northward, we rode along the beach to the
mouth of the Shiribuka creek, where the coast line, turning oif to the northwest,
marks the southern shore of the peninsula south of Strogonof bay. Following
this shore we left the terrace plain of Iwanai bay. During the rest of the day we
saw only the tufa-conglomerate formation, which, traversed by numerous dykes of
volcanic rock, faces the sea in bold bluffs, to pass which we were at last compelled
to take a boat to carry us to Ousubetz, a small fishing village.

The volcanic conglomerate of this region extends some distance inland, and con-
sists almost entirely of more or less rounded fragments of black lava filled with
green-coated cells.

August 22d. Leaving the sea we made a short excursion up the bed of a creek,
the Kaiyanobetz. About onejnile from the shore a gray sandstone was found ex-
posed for a short distance beneath the volcanic conglomerate, and about one mile
and a half further we found in the bed of a rivulet the following strata, the order
reading from younger to older.^

1. Fine-grained argillaceous rock with fossil plants,

2. Coarse sandstone.

3. Clay shale with Equisetacece.

4. Coarse sandstone.

5. Three seams of bituminous coal alternating with thin beds of clay, the princi-
pal seam having about four feet of good coal.

The strike of these beds was N. 30° E., the dip being 50° to N. 60° W.

In a neighboring ravine a white silicious rock was observed, apparently older
than the coal, and made up of minute layers, the whole being hard, and having
somewhat the appearance of a semi-opal.

> Except a small specimen of coal which was brought away by one of the Japanese officers, all
the collections from this region were lost in the wreck mentioned above.

13 July, 1866.

98 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Retracing our steps to Ousubetz we embarked in a boat propelled by eight oars-
men, four scullers, and a large sail, and soon reached Iwanai.

August 25th. Leaving Iwanai we went by boat to Isoya, passing close under the
rocky cliffs of the Raiden. The northern part of this mountain is formed of the
volcanic tufa-conglomerate covered by a great bed, or perhaps several flows, of lava,
often exhibiting columnar structure. In places beds of lava seemed to be inter-
stratified with the conglomerate.

At about half the distance between the northern and southern sides of this high-
land, a large amphitheatre or crateriform valley opens towards the sea. South of
this the cliffs, less high, consist of the conglomerate, and in the perpendicular walls
are visible many small but regular dykes with transverse columnar structure, and
in places dislocated by faults. The conglomerate strata have a considerable south-
westerly dip, and as we approach the southern flank of the Raiden, near the village
of Hamajime, they disappear under the sea. Overlying this formation and forming
the mountain above, is a gray volcanic rock, possessing a tabular structure, which
gives it often a stratiform appearance near the bottom, but in the upper half of its
thickness the plates curve irregularly upwards, presenting their edges towards the
upper surface of the bed.

This mountain is a high, flat ridge, running nearly east and west, between the
valleys of the Shiribetz and the Shiribulia rivers, and on it is the Iwaou nobori,
and at least one more volcano.

August 27th. Leaving Isoya, we rode around the head of Odaszu bay to Sutzu.
On this side of the bay we met again terraces of conglomerate, covered with loose
sand and gravel, corresponding to those mentioned as occurring on the opposite
side.

Before reaching Sutzu the conglomerate formation was found to be succeeded,
fot a short distance, by a gray eruptive rofck, apparently a trachytic porphyry. The
conglomerate in this region consists, almost entirely, of rounded fragments of a com-
pact black rock, almost a pitchstone, containing crystals of white triclinic felspar.

August 28th. Leaving Sutzu we rode westward, over the lower of the two terraces
that rise between the sea and the hills. The highlands are wooded with small
trees, but on the terraces there is generally only a heavy growth of weeds and joint-
grass, often from six to ten feet high. Leaving the sea-shore, we crossed the pro-
montory to its western flank, travelling over the conglomerate, upon which was
seen a loose deposit of sand and gravel closely resembling the auriferous deposit of
Kunnui. In one place 1 observed an outcrop of the argillaceous rock, with the
peculiar vermiform fossil, seen at Kunnui, Washinoki, etc.

At Achase the tufa-conglomerate dips inland, and beneath it there is an appa-
rently conformable bed of flne-grained, brown sandstone, easily scratched with the
knife, and seemingly of the same origin as the conglomerate.

A few miles further southward we reached Shimakomaki. Here the semi-vitreous
character of the pebbles that compose the conglomerate is better developed
than usual, although a black amorphous base was found to be generally prevalent,
in these fragments, in the tufa-conglomerates of the west coast.- Here the base of
the rock is jet black, opaque, with the lustre of pitch, and imperfect conchoidal

CHINA, MO:n GO LI A, AND JAPAN. 99

fracture. Fragments break off with a very hackly surface. The structure varies
from slightly cellular to scoriaceous, the cells being lined with a light greenish or
bluish film. It contains thin crystals of white, glassy felspar, the number of which
seems to be in an inverse ratio to that of the cells. The felspar is, at least in
part, a triclinic variety.

The Tomari creek, which enters the sea near Shimakomaki, brings down among
its rubble, diorite, granular limestone containing nephrite, clay schist, and varieties
of quartz and jasper. This stream rises in the hills that have furnished, in part at
least, the aiuiferous gravels of Kunnui, and it is probable that similar deposits
occur also in the valley of the Tomari.

August 29th. Embarking in a .large boat we sailed close under the lofty cliffs
of a grandly picturesque, but dangerous coast, as far as Setanai.

The volcanic conglomerate exists as the principal formation of the coast, between
Shimakomaki and Setanai. At Cape Shiraita the thickness of the conglomerate,
above the sea, is between 100 and 200 feet; above this is a bed, perhaps 160 feet
thick, apparently of a looser material, with many white fragments scattered through
it ; and, finally, covering this, for a distance of one or two miles, is a bed of lava,
150 to 200 feet thick.

From this point to Cape Moteta the cliffs are entirely of the volcanic conglomer-
ate, of which a lower bed is sometimes visible, with white fragments, those of the
upper beds being dark brown or black.

At Cape Moteta the volcanic conglomerate, occupying the lower part of the cliffs
to the height of between 100 and 200 feet above the sea, is covered by a thick bed
of columnar lava. Near this point a broad dyke rises through the conglomerate
to the overlying lava bed, but it was impossible to determine, at a distance, the
relative ages of the latter and the dyke.

Numerous dykes traverse the conglomerate between Cape Moteta and Setanai.
At Abura the latter approaches sandstone in texture ; at one place it was seen to
pass abruptly into a white deposit, probaby a pumiceous tufa.

South of Abura the conglomerate is covered by a lava bed, and this by white,
apparently tufaceous, strata.

Several miles north of Setanai a thick bed of columnar lava is visible, high up
the face of the cliff, lying between two members of the neptuno-volcani(f formation,
and dipping gently toward the south. Before reaching Setanai a thick flow of lava,
beautifully columnar and probably the continuation of the bed just mentioned,
occupies the lower half or more of the cliff, while needles of the same rock rising-
high out of the sea form picturesque islands.

This rock is a dark brown, much weathered, cellular lava. The cells are coated
with a soft, brittle mineral, dark green in the fracture, and light bluish-green on
the surface ; and being flattened and parallel, with their planes at right angles to
the axes of the columns, they give to the rock a slaty structure. Overlying' this
lava bed there are strata of tufa-conglomerate, made up mostly of fragments of
cellular and scoriaceous volcanic products.

Just south of Setanai the Toshibetz — here several hundred feet broad — the river,
on which lie the gold washings of Kunnui, empties into the sea — its valley, here

■*

100 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

several miles broad, being the first break,, of any size, in the uninterrupted line of
cliffs south of the Bay of Odaszu.

August 30th. Continuing our journey southward we followed the beach, sepa-
rated here by high sand hills from the flats of the Toshibetz, tiU Futoro,

Just before reaching this village we left the valley and came under a bluff of
trachytic or phonolithic lava, with a tendency to slaty structure. It has a light
gray base, with semi-vitreous lustre, and is cellular — the cavities being very irregular
in shape and lined with a grayish-blue botryoidal mineral. It contains numerous
crystals of a glassy triclinic felspar.

At Futoro the volcanic conglomerate reappears as a red and brown tufa, with
fragments of the lava just described and other varieties that show a regular transition
from this lava into a black amorphous kind closely resembling that mentioned as form-
ing dykes at Isoya. The strata of this neptuno-volcanic formation strike nearly N.
and dip to E. about 20°, and the cleavage planes of the lava bed described above dip
in the same direction. This lava flow seems to be at least 260 or 300 feet thick.
Just south of Futoro the contact between the lava and conglomerate was observed.
The former rock at a little distance from the contact was found to be fresh, generally
free from cells, and had a light gray compact base, abounding in crystals of triclinic,
glassy felspar, with here and there a crystal of hornblende. Its appearance re-
minded me strongly of some non-quartziferous felsitic porphyries. Near the contact
it became more earthy, and assumed the appearance of the base of the conglomerate,
from which it was here distinguishable only by the crystals of felspar. The whole
appearance of the contact seemed to indicate that the lava had flowed over the
surface of the older deposit before this had become compacted.

August 31st. From Futoro we went by boat to Oouta. Not far from Futoro the
volcanic formations were seen to rest upon a granite or syenite, which, a little further
south, abuts, with a vertical line of contact, against a compact black, aphanitic
rock. This last was seen, in the face of a rock rising from the sea, to be traversed
by veins of granite which, just south of this, was found to form the high cliffs till
near Oouta.

At Nichinbe, about three miles north of Oouta, the prevailing rock was found to
be a very beautiful syenitic granite, composed of greenish-white triclinic felspar,
brilliant hornblende, black mica, and quartz. It is traversed by a dyke of a green,
micro-crystalline rock, containing felspar and hornblende.

At Oouta there is an extensive development of metamorphic rocks, consisting of
a fine-grained granulite of even texture, and a conglomerate-breccia of argillaceous
rocks. The only traces of a trend observable was in the vertical plane of contact
between these two rocks, and this lay N. and S. South of Oouta syenite reappears,
and is shown to be younger than the granulite by the numerous fragments it
incloses of the last-mentioned rock.

The granulite is cut by dykes of an aphanitic rock similar to that observed
south of Futoro, and which we have seen to be traversed by veins of granite.
Finally, the conglomerate-breccia incloses frag-taents of amygdaloid resembling a
variety found in the auriferous gravel of Kunnui, and containing nodules of chalce-
dony surrounded by a soft green mineral resembling delessite.

*f

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 101

The relative ages of the metamorphic and intrusive rocks of this region appear
to be as follows, reading from younger to older: —

1. Greenstone of Nichinbe ; djdie in syenitic granite.

2. Syenitic granite.

3. Aphanitic rock.

4. Metamorphic conglomerate and granulite of Oouta.
6. Amygdaloid.

September 1st. Continuing the journey by boat we reached Kudo — the syenitic
granite forming high hills along the sea as far as Ouenkoto, near Kudo.

At Kudo other metamorphic strata were observed, consisting of black and rose-
colored quartz-schist, clay slate in thin beds, and a dark brown, micro-crystalline
rock, apparently felspar and hornblende. These strata are folded and refolded,
and the stratification being well preserved, they presented the finest example of
plication I had ever seen. The general trend of the folding seemed to be about E.,
but there was too much irregularity in this respect to make sure of the direction ;
further south the trend appeared more regularly N. W. and the dip N. E.

The beds are traversed by a dyke of a porphyritic rock containing crystals of
green and greenish-white triclinic felspar and of hornblende, in a grayish purple
base.

A cold spring of chalybeate and carbonated water rises on the beach from the
quartzite.

September 2d. Riding along the sea-shore, a few miles, we reached the penal
establishment of Ousubetz, at the mouth of a creek of the same name.

Ascending this stream, which is a wild mountain torrent contained, near the sea,
between cliffs of the volcanic conglomerate, we came upon an amygdaloidal rock,
and beyond this a chloritic granite containing, besides quartz and chlorite, white
orthoclase and a light green triclinic felspar. In this granite there is a broad belt,
apparently a dyke, of a claystone-porphyry, a yellowish rock with a rough, earthy
base free from visible quartz, and from which the crystals of felspar have dis-
appeared, leaving only their -cavities. From this porphyry issue several springs,
which showed in different instances temperatures of 55°, 58°, and 58|° C.

These springs have formed deposits, of carbonate of lime and brown oxide of iron,
which are more or less cavernous, and are the abode of a great number of snakes,
which, attracted by the perpetual warmth, and being respected by the natives as the
deities of the place, live unharmed. The cast-off skins of these reptiles flutter, like
streamers, from every hole and neighboring bush.

Beyond the chloritic granite we found again the amygdaloid which, under various
forms, extended as far inland as our excursion continued, about one mile beyond
the chloritic granite.

In one of the side ravines a bluish-white, highly silicious rock, with conchoidal
fracture and impregnated with minute cubes of iron pyrites, was observed in con-
tact with the amygdaloidal rock.

This amygdaloid is very variable in character, in places brecciated, in others

massive the base being generally dark reddish-brown, and containing nodules of

calcite and a green, soft clayey mineral, with here and there one of quartz. Frag-

102

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

Fig. 18

i'-l-'-l-l.'-ti.lL,

-L

a "=> o

a

c

a. Lava flow. b. Tufa-oonglomerate.

ments of a green serpentinoidal rock, which seemed to be a variety of the
amygdaloid, occur in the creek.

September 4th. Descending to the sea we rode southward along the shore,
under cliffs of the volcanic conglomerate, as far as the large village of Kumaishi.

September 5th. Leaving Kumaishi we followed the beach southward. From
the village south the shore bluff is formed by a vertical cliff of white pumice-tufa,
sufficiently hard to permit the making of steps in it. It is in thick beds having
a southerly dip. South of Hiratanai this pumice-tufa is covered by the usual
tufa-conglomerate.

A short distance east of Hiratanai a flow of amorphous lava, resembling that
which occurs in fragments in the conglomerate of Isoya and Futoro, flows over the

face of the bluff — the erosion of the
conglomerate having progressed to
nearly its present condition before
the flow. A conical hill with a
crateriform depression, lying several
miles inland, was observed from the
beach, and was possibly the source
of the stream.

Beyond this point, as far as To-
marigawa, another bed of pumice-
tufa, overlying the conglomerate,
forms the bluff-rock and the skeleton of the terraces that extend several miles
inland.

At Tomarigawa we left the sea-shore and entered the mountains, and ascending
to the watershed between the Japan sea and Volcano bay, we descended the eastern
slope to the mines of Yurup.

Our road, during this distance, lay, all the way, over the volcanic tufa-conglomer-
ate formation, which extends entirely across this part of the island, and forms the
ridge at a height of perhaps 2,000 feet.

This deposit is cut up by deep valleys with steep sides. In these 1 noticed out-
crops, beneath the conglomerate, of granite, two or three miles from the sea, and,
further eastward, of the argillaceous rock with vermiform fossils already mentioned
several times.

T])-.e lead mines of Yurup are in the valley system of the river of the same name.
Here a widely extended erosion has removed the volcanic conglomerate, for a
considerable distance, exposing a very extensive development of a black meta-
morphosed argillite, which was found to contain the vermiform fossils so often
mentioned in the previous pages. The strata are tilted up, often almost vertical,
and are frequently connected with broad bands, apparently dykes, of greenstone.
The lead-bearing veins occur in both these rocks. The vein-mass consists of quartz,
carbonate of manganese, calcite, and, in one vein, crystals of barytes. Besides
these minerals the galena is associated with zincblende, and pyrites of iron and
copper.

The veins vary from two to eighteen inches in thickness, being more regular in

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 103

tlie greenstone where, also, the gangue is chiefly quartz, and often existing as a
zone, several feet broad, of parallel threads, in the argillaceous rock.

The mines have been worked several years and a considerable area explored, but
like those at Ichinowatari they are very poor — the highest production ever attained
being about four tons per month, and at the time of my visit it was only about one
and three-quarter tons.

The processes of separation and smelting are the same as at Ichinowatari. The
laborers are furnished, at the expense of the mine, with rice and miso, .a vegetable
substance used for soup. I have added a schedule of the daily expenses, more as a
curiosity, and as illustrating the cost of labor, than for any other reason.

Daily Expenses of the Yurup Lead Mines.
Accountant clerk ...........$ 05

Head miner Ot

Twenty-five miners, at 5 cts 1 25

Eighteen coolies, at 4 cts. ......... 72

Thirteen women ore dressers and washers, at 2 to" 6 cents. ... 45

Daily consumption of iron 12

" " steel 04

" " mats and ropes . 06

Total $2 t6

The working time is eight hours daily. The miners receive tasks, for all work
over which they are paid extra. The task when working in the hardest rock, here
a greenstone, is -^^ of one foot in five days, per man. In very soft rock five feet
in five days, per man. The average is about one and one-half feet. The above
measures refer to galleries five feet high and three broad. The miners are required
to hew the walls as smoothly, and square the angles as accurately as was the
custom in Germany before the use of gunpowder.

A woman's daily task is to pulverize about 160 pounds of ore.

One thousand pounds of roughly-sorted ore yields 67 pounds of schlicJi, from
which 45 pounds of metallic lead are obtained.

The charcoal for smelting is produced in vaulted furnaces, which receive daily
64 cubic feet of split wood.

Both cold and warm chalybeate springs rise in the metamorphic argillite ; the
warm one, having the temperature of 46° C, is used in winter for washing the ore.

At this place we introduced the use of gunpowder in mining — its application to
that purpose being entirely unknown throughout Eastern Asia. We met with the
same objection here that was used, centuries ago, against its introduction into the
German mines, the fear that the mountain would fall in. One blast, however, aUayed
this fear, and the miners adopted it enthusiastically thenceforth.

September 11th. Leaving Yurup we descended the valley to the sea. At the
distance of about one mile from the mines we came again to the volcanic con-
glomerate. This formation is here similar in character to that seen between the
Japan sea and the mines, but differs from that generally met with along the sea-
shore. It has undergone so much alteration that it is often difficult to draw the
line between the inclosing mass and the fragments. Those latter are of a dark.

104 GEOLOGICAL UESEARCnES IN

cellular rock with amorphous base, containing abundant crystals of nomblende and
felspar. The cementing material is a more or less yellowish mineral, with the
lustre of wax, and easily scratched with the knife. This mass also abounds in
crystals of hornblende and felspar, and is cellular in the same manner as the
inclosed fragments. Specimens show a transition from one to the other, and this is
especially observable around the cells in the fragments. The general color of the
rock is dirty yellow. If this be not a true palagonite tufa it must be closely
related to it.

The strata of this formation dip gently, on the western slope, towards the Japan
sea, and on the eastern slope, towards Volcano bay. They consist of two principal
members, the lower, a fine-grained, soft tufa with black mica and fragments of
nearly decomposed pumice ; and the palagonite tufa, if I may call it such, as the
upper member.

At about half way between the mines and the sea we came again upon the
argillaceous rock of the mines,, containing the same characteristic fossil, but un-
metamorphosed, and presenting itself as a soft gray argillaceous shale.

At the village of Yurup, on Volcano bay, we came into the road followed in
going north, and completed the circuit of this itinerary.

Without attempting, in the absence of necessary data, to determine more closely
the ages of the rocks referred to in the preceding pages, they may be generally
classed as follows : —

I. Older metamorphic.

II. Pluto-neptunian.

III. Eecent, including the marine terrace deposits.

IV. Eruptive, of all ages.

The first of these divisions contains all the sedimentary rocks that were observed
to be older than the volcanic tufa-conglomerate formation. They are rocks that
vary widely in character, and perhaps as widely in age. Forming the skeleton, of
at least the southern part of Yesso, they are almost everywhere concealed by the
younger deposits.

The most highly metamorphosed and perhaps the oldest strata observed are the
granulite and conglomerate-breccia beds of* Oouta, on the west coast. These last
are made up of older argillaceous and amygdaloidal rocks, but are also older than
three varieties of eruptive rocks — aphanitic trap, syenitic granite, and a greenstone
trap, apparently diorite.

The greatest part of the southeast peninsula, lying between Volcano bay and the
Straits of Tsungara, is formed of fissile clay slates with subordinated beds of sand-
stone and conglomerates, the uplift trending nearly as the peninsula, about N. W.
by W. These strata are traversed by frequent dykes of the characteristic white
quartziferoUs porphyry, and varieties of greenstone, the latter being younger than
the porphyry.

At Wosatzube, on the northern side of the peninsula, there are beds of silicious
schist, having also a northwesterly trend, and strata of a similar character occur
at Kudo, on the west coast, associated with subordinated clay slate and beds of a

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 105

hornblende-felspar rock. Here also the mean trend of the highly contorted beds
is between W. and N.

The remaining older rocks of tlys part of the island belong to the Ichinowatari
series, and the argillite beds containing the obscure vermiform fossil, so often men-
tioned. The Ichinowatari series are black and gray metamorphosed argillaceous
rocks, associated with older or younger shale containing calamites of unltnown age,
and with greenstone ; and they are characterized by metalliferous veins occurring
at least in both the argillaceous rocks and in the greenstone.

The argiUite beds we find at many points, throughout the region included in the
above itineraries, occurring in places either as a compact gray rock or as a shale,
while at Yurup it is metamorphosed to a compact black rock, tilted almost to per-
pendicularity. Between Tomarigawa, on the west coast, and Yurup, on Volcano
bay, it is found, excepting in one locality, to be the predominating rock wherever
the ravines have cut through to the bottom of the volcanic tufa-conglomerate strata.
The rocks in question have, in common with the Ichinowatari series, their argilla-
ceous character, their association with dykes and great masses of greenstone and
an identity of character in the metalliferous veins of the two localities, both as
regards the association of minerals in these and also as regards some peculiarities
in the condition of the greenstone near these veins.

Finally we have seen, beyond Iwanai, near Ousubetz (north), a coal-bearing series
of more or less metamorphosed rocks, containing fossil Equiseta.

We find, in the auriferous gravel of Kunnui, representatives of another class of
metamorphic rocks in the chloritic and micaceous schists, etc., which are probably
the source of the gold, and evidently exist in situ in the ridge between that place
and the Japan sea.

The enumerated strata form, so far as my observation extended, the skeleton of
Southern Yesso. The local strike of the coal-bearing rocks of the Ousubetz (north)
is N. 30° E., being nearly at right angles to the N. W. trend of the peninsula on
which they occur. All the other beds of the older rocks seem to have been afiected
chiefly by an uplift trending betwefe N. and W., and to which that portion of the
island lying between Esan volcano and the mouth of the Toshibetz, on the west
coast, appears to owe its direction.

We come now to the pluto-neptunian beds, consisting of great masses, more or
less stratified, of volcanic products in the form of tufas, sandstones, and coarser
conglomerates and breccias.

This, by far the predominating formation, forms almost everywhere sloping plains
or terraces between the mountains and the sea-shore, and extends, at least in
places, entirely over the watersheds between Volcano bay and the Japan sea, form-
ing peaks, as the Obokodake, several thousand feet high.

The petrographical character of these beds is very different, not only in their
vertical, but also in their horizontal development. Along the west coast we find
thick beds of a white pumice-tufa associated with conglomerates made up of frag-
ments of a black compact rock, almost a pitchstone. Along the road from Tomari-
gawa to Volcano bay the lowest beds observed were of a more clayey pumiceous
tufa, and above these an immense development of a scoriaceous conglomerate-

14 July, 1866.

106 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN"

breccia, altered in great part to a wacke and strongly resembling palagonite-tufa.
Bordering the eastern end of the southeastern peninsula, we have seen the repre-
sentative beds of this formation, but differing f^pva those of the west coast in that
the inclosed fragments have more the character of quartziferous trachytic porphyry,
thus approaching closely in character to the wall rock of the Esan crater and its
recent ejecta, as also to the rock of Hakodade peak.

The only traces of fossils observed in this formation, were some fragments of the
spines of an Echinoderm found near Washinoki.

The presence of these deposits over so large an area, and the fact that they
always contain beds of coarse material, points to a corresponding range of volcanic
activity. The same is indicated in the numerous lava flows and dykes that are
intimately associated with these beds.

They are probably of submarine origin, and since their formation the island has
undergone many changes of level. A large part of Southern Yesso was under
water during the deposition of these deposits ; it seems to have been gradually
elevated and submitted to littoral erosion, forming the different terraces, and then
to have been partially submerged to receive the recent terrace clay deposits.

This recent terrace deposit exists as beds of clay, almost exclusively, along the
southern slope of the southeastern peninsula, and bordering the western shore of
Volcano bay, and in depressions inland from this, as in the valley of the Toshibetz.
Along the west coast where the depth of water is great, and the coast precipitous,
this deposit rarely exists as clay, and then only bordering deep indentations like
the Bay of Odaszu ; but it is perhaps partially represented by the gravelly covering
of the Volcanic conglomerate terraces. As has been already stated, this terrace-
clay deposit abounds in the remains of recent MoUusks.

After the elevation of these recent terraces, and after the action of an extensive
erosion, there were formed the auriferous gravels of Kimnui, and finally, mcfre
repent and still progressing, subaerial deposits, as the volcanic-ash beds around
Comangadake.

Very little is known of the physical character of the rest of Yesso. Volcanic
cones, -.extinct and active, seem to exist throughout the island. Coal occurs at
several points on the east coast, and several ammonites and a piece of obsidian were
shown to me by the Governor of Yesso, as coming from the Monbetz creek, on the
northern coast.

The island receives an additional interest from being a point of intersection of
three lines of upheaval, and evidently owes its remarkable shape to this fact.

The first of these lines is represented by the northwesterly trend, of that portion
of the island extending from Esan volcano to the mouth of the Toshibetz, and this
is also the trend of the uplifted metamorphic strata; indeed the southeastern
peninsula seems to be an anticlinal axis, the dip of the beds being on both sides,
along the coast, toward the sea. This is also the trend of the peninsula south of
Strogonoff bay, and of the northern coast line.

The second line is that extending from the headland of Matzmai, northeast
through the longer axis of the island and of the Kurile chain to Kamschatka. This
determines also the northeasterly course of the eastern coast line.

CHINA, MONGOLIA,, AND JAPAN. 107

The third line is that of the island of Sagalin (Krafto), which, trending due north
and south, would seem to determine the N. S. course of the western coast line of
Yesso, and the N. S. trend of Nippon from its northern point to the Bay of .Yedo.

I have already referred the N. E.. line of uplift to the Sinian system of eleva-
tion, in a previous chapter ; the N. W. trend affecting, as it does, the oldest meta-
morphic rocks, is perhaps older, and the N. S. trend younger.

Neighborhood of NagasaJd, on the West Coast of the Island of Kiusiu.

This port is at the head of a long narrow inlet, or fiord, which has nearly a
N. E., S. W. trend, and lies between long ridges, the peaks of which rise to between
1,000 and 2,000 feet above the sea. The skeleton rocks of these hills are meta-
morphic strata. These were mica schist dipping vertically, in both the ridges where
they were examined, northwest and southeast from the city, and argillaceous and
talco-argillaceous schists, with some limestone, where the eastern ridge was seen
near its southern end, opposite the island of Kabasima, On this island the trend
of the strata is nearly N., S., and they are traversed by a broad belt of granite
bearing fragments of the schists near the planes of contact. On the island Amaksa,
a few miles further east, crystalline, white limestone, and a fine sandstone are
quarried.

The greater part of the country, in the neighborhood of Nagasaki, is covered, to
the summits of the highest hiUs, with an extensive pluto-neptunian deposit, resem-
bling in general character the volcanic tufa-conglomerate of Yesso.

In places along the eastern side of the bay, and on the islands at its mouth, the
rocks of a coal-bearing formation are exposed. Of these only a coarse, hard sand-
stone, with threads of coal was seen, as it was not permitted to foreigners to land
at any of these localities. The position of these beds, however, is such as to make
it probable, that the rocks of this coal basin rest immediately, and nonconformably,
on the metamorphic strata before mentioned.

In the terraces which in places fringe this coast, we have again evidence of
oscillations in level, since the beginning of the volcanic epoch. The terraces are
very tufaceous, and seem to be of more recent deposition than the conglomerate
that covers the higher hiUs.

Bay of Yedo.

Nearly aU the country included within the treaty limits, or radius of twenty-five
miles from Yokohama, which area alone is accessible to foreigners, is of recent
formation. A bluff, from 60 to 100 feet high, of bluish clay containing recent
shells, and fragments of pumice, with^an upper stratum of more gravelly character,
faces the bay. From the summit of this bluff a plain of the same deposit extends
westward, about twenty miles, rising gently, till the mountains of Oyama. I was
not permitted to ascend these mountains, but from the gravels of the streams
descending from them I judged them to be metamorphic. The fragments seen
were of diorite, gabbro, and serpentine.

108 GEOLOGICAL RBSEARCIIES IN

South, of Yokohama the ridge of the peninsula of Sagami also furnishes frag-
ments of serpentine. The western side of the peninsula, as well as the island of
Enosima, are of a firm, fine-grained gray sandstone and conglomerate, in apparently
horizontal strata.

Previous to the elevation of the recent beds, the peninsula of Sagami, and probably
also the highland east of the Bay of Yedo, were islands.

The existence of these recent marine terraces along the Japanese coast, from
Yesso to Kiusiu, and of similar deposits on the China coast, as at Chifu and along the
western edge of the great delta plain, point to widely extended changes, in recent
times, in the relative position of land and water. A careful study of their charac-
ters, as regards the organisms they contain — a study that should include the recent
deposits of the Amur system,^ and perhaps also those of the Manchurian rivers —
would probably throw much light on the age of the Gobi desert deposits, and
through this on some of the most important questions of quaternary and younger
tertiary geology.

* M. Schmidt observed, almost everywhere on the Amur, between Strelka and Blahowestschensk,
terraces of fresh-water tertiary rising nearly 200 feet above the river. — Peterman's Mittheilungen,
1861, p. 315.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 109

CHAPTER X..

MINERAL PRODUCTIONS OP CHINA.

The following list of minerals, and their localities, is compiled from Chinese
geographical works, the Tatsingitungchi having furnished the greater part, though
for the sake of completeness, the special geographies of the different provinces, and
often those of departments, were searched.

The compilation involved the examination, by the author's Chinese secretary, of
over one thousand volumes.

Only a portion of the list compiled can be made available for publication owing to
our- inabihty to identify the Chinese names for a large proportion of the useful
minerals.

The orthography adopted by Dr. S. W. Williams, for Chinese geographical
names, is followed in the list, where the subdivision of the country into provinces,
departments (Fu), and districts (Chau, Hien, or Ting), is also observed.

List of Localities of Useful Minerals in China}

* IRON.

PROVINCE OF CHIHLL

Shuntien (Fu) or Peking. At Tsunh-wa (chau) Wangping (hien) at Chingshui near Chaitang.

At Tiekung Mt. 30 li E. of MrruN (hien).
Patjting (Fu). In Mwanching (hien).
SiuENHWA (Fu). In LuNGMUN (Men) lodestone.
YuNGPiNG (Fu). At Mang Mt. 15 li N. E. of Tsienngan (hien). At Mt. Tsz' 15 li W. of Lulung

(hien), with gold and silver ores.
Shunteh (Fu). At Mt. Hai 40 li W. of Shaho (hien.)
KyANGPiNG (Fu). Lodestone at Tsz' (chau).

PROVINCE OF SHANSL

Taiyuen (Fu). In Taiyuen (hien) and Yxjtse (bien).

PiNGTANG (Fu). In KiUHYU (hien). Yutstjng (hien). Yoyang (hien). KiH (chau). Hiang-

NiNG (hien)
PucHAU (Fu). Hien not indicated.
KiAi (chau). In Ngani (hien).

KiANQ (chau). At Mt Kiajig 20 W. of Kiang (hien).
Ltjngan (Fu) Hien not indicated.
Fanchau (Fu). At Siyen Mt, in Hiatini (Men).

» Localities producing coal, lime, alum, salt, and gold, are tabulated on pages 56-61.

110 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

TsEHCHAU (Fu). Iq Yangching (hien).
Tatung (Pu). In HwAiTSUNG (hien).
PiNGTiNG (chau). Hien not indicated.

PROVINCE OP SHENSL

SiNGAN (Pu). Hien not indicated.

Shang (chau). 180 li N. E. of the city at Mt. Tiling.

Pin (chau). Hien not indicated.

PuNGTSiANG (Pu). In LuNG (chau) and Mei (hien).

Hanchcnq (Pu). In Tsxjngku (hien). At Lotsung Mt. N. W. of Siatang (hien). At Tie Mt.

5 li N. of Mien (hien).
Pu (chau). In Chungpu (hien) and Ikiun (hien).

PROVINCE OP KANSUH.

PiNGLiANG (Fu). In PiNGLiANG (hien) and Hwating (hien).

Kungchang (Pu). At Te'yang Mt. 120 S. of Ningyuen (hien). At Ningkwei Mt. 30 li S. of

Ningyuen (hien), with silver and copper ores.
TsiN (chau). In Tsingngan (hien) and Hwui (hien).
Kingyang (Pu). At Mt. Hungling 18 li N. of Nganhwa (hien).
Ninghia (Fu). Hien not indicated.

PROVINCE OP SHANTUNG.

Tsinan (Fu). In Chichuen (hien). At Mt, Chang 50 li S. E. of Sinching (hien).

Taingan (Fu). lu Laiwu (hien) ; S. E. 13 li at Mt.' Tashi, and N. W. 3 li at Mt. Kung.

Yenchau (Pu). In Yih (hien).

IcHAU (Pu). At Mt. Chipau 100 11 N. of Ku (chau) in vicinity of gold, silver, copper, lead, and
tin ores.

Tsingchau (Pu). A Mt. Tie 90 li from Yihte (hien). In Kauyuen (hien) and Longan (hien). At
Mt. Chang in Lingtse (hien). At Mt. Sung 60 li S.W. of Linkij (hien) in the vicinity of
silver, lead, copper, tin, and cinnabar ores and gold washings. ,

TuNQCHAU (Pu). In PuNGLAi (hien).

PROVINCE OP KIANGSUH.

Kiangning (Fu) or Nanking. At Tsz Mt. in Kiuyung (hien), with copper ores. Lodestone at

Mt. Yen in Luhhoh (hien).
Chinkiang (Fu). 30 li S. W. of Liyang (hien).
Hwaingan (Fu). In Yenching (hien).
SiJOHAU (Fu). At Mt. Pema 90 li N. E. of Tungsan (hien).

PROVINCE OP NGANHWUL •

Ngankinq (Fu). Hien not indicated.

Taiping (Fu). Steel works at Tekang in Fanchang (hien).

PROVINCE OP HONAN.

HoNAN (Pu), In the hiens, Kung, Niyang, Tungpung, Singan, and Sung
Nanyang (Fu). In the hiens, Nanyang and Neyanq.
Kaieung (Pu). In Yu (chau).
Changteh (Fu). In Sheh (hien).
Ju (chau). Hien not given.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. Ill

PROVINCE OF HUPEH.

WuCHANQ (Eu). In KiANGHiA (Men) and Wuchang (hien). At Mt. Hwuilu E. of Tay^ (hien).

At Mt. Tsz'hu 50 li N. E of Taye (Men) lodestone. At Hwangko Mt. 2 li W. of Hing-

KWOH (chau), in vicinity of silver ores.
HwANGCHAU (Pu). At Mt. Kung 40 li W. of Maohing (hien). At Mt. Kung 15 li S. E. of Hwang-

MEi (hien).

PROVINCE OF SZ'CHUEN.

CniNQTU (Fu). In Tsingtsing (hien).

Tsz' (chau). Hien not indicated.

Mien (chau). Hien not indicated.

NiNGYUEN (Fu). In HwuiLi (chau), Mienning (hien), and Tenyuen (hien).

Pauning (Fu). In Kwangytjen (hien).

Shingkinq (Fu). Hien not indicated.

Chungking (Fu). At Mt. Tie 80 li S. E. of YuNGTSANG*(hien). In Hon (chau). In Tungltang

(hien).
Chung (chau). In Fungtu (hien).

Kweichau (Fu). In Wushan (hien) and Yunyang (hien).
Suiting (Fu). In Ku (hien) and in Tatsoh (Men).
LuNGNGAN (Fu). Hien not given.

Tungchuen (Fu). In Tenting (hien) and Shihung (hien).
KiATiNG (Fu). 40 li N. of Weiyuen (hien). 100 li N. of Yung (hien).
KuNGCHAU (Fu). At Kusung Mt. 10 li S. of the city in vicinity of copper ore.

PROVINCE OF KIANGSI.

Nanchang (Fu). In Fungsin (hien) and Tsinhien (hien).

KwANGSiN (Fu). In YoHYANG (hien), Ytjshan (hien), Kweichi (Men), and Shangtsao (hien).

Kanchau (Fu). At Tishan in Weitsang (hien).

Nannqan (Fu). In Tayu (hien).

PROVINCE OF HUNAN.

Changsha (Fu). Hien not given.
Shinchau (Fu). Hien not given.
Hangchau (Fu). Hien not given.
Yungchau (Fu). Hien not given.
Yungshun (Fu). Hien not given.
Pauking (Fu). Hien not given
Chanoteh (Fu). Hien not given.
Chin (chau). Hien not given.
Tsing (chau). Hien not given.
Li (chau). Hien not given.
KwEiYANG (chau). Hien not given.
Yochau (Fu). Hien not given.

PROVINCE OF KWEICHAU.

Sz'CHAU (Fu). At Mt. Lungtang E. of the city, in vicinity of lead ores.

TuNGJiN (Fu). 100 li W. on Sungchi river, in vicinity of gold washings. 140 li W. in the Tichi

river,
LiPiNG (Fu). Hien not indicated.
Shihtsien (Fu). Hien not indicated.
Tating (Fu). In Weining (chau).
Sz'NAN (Fu). In Nganhwa (hien).

112 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

PROVINCE OF CHEHKIANG.

KiAHiNQ (Fu) In Haiyen (hien).

Taichau (Fu). At Lungsu Mt. in Ninghai (hien), in vicinity of copper ore.

Yenchatj (Fu). At Mt. Tie in Kiente (hien).

Wanchau (Fu). In Pingyanq (hien). In Tisung (hien). In Suingan (hien).

Chuchau (Fu). In Sibnping (hien).

PROVINCE OF FUHKIEN.

FuHCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Fuhtsing and Ming.

TsiENCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Tungngan and Nqanchi.

KiENNiNG (Fu). In the hien Kienngan, Tsungho, Wuning, and Sungchi.

Yenping (Fu). In the hien Nanping, Yuki, and Tsiangloh.

TiNGCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Hianghang, Ninghwa, and Tsangting.

Changchau (Fu). In Ltjngohi (hien),

FuNiNG (Fu) In NiNGTEH (Men).

YuNGCHUN (chau). In Tehhwa (hien).

PROVINCE OF KWANGTUNG.

Lien (chau). In Yangshan (hien).

Shauchau (Fu). In TJngyuen (hign).

Shaukinq (Fu) In hien Yangtsung, Yangkiang, and Siuhing.

KiuNGCHATi (Fu). Lodestone, locality not given.

Loting (chau). Excellent ore at Mt. Wutungtu in Tungngan (hien).

PROVINCE OF KWANGSL

LiTiCHAU (Fu). In YtJNG (hien).

PiNGLOH (Fu), At Chingkang Mt. 120 li S. E. of Ho (hien). At Mt. Chaukang 45 li N, E. of
Ho (hien).

PROVINCE OF YUNNAN.

Yunnan (Fu). In Kwungming (hien) and Yungmen (hien),

LiNGAN (Fu). In SiNGO (hien) at Hungtonientsa, Sanhotsa, Liulungtsa, and Tsingtsa. In Shih-

PiNG (chau).
TsuHiuNG (Fu). At TsuYUTSUNG in TiNGYUEN (hien). 60 li W. of Tsungnan (chau).
Chinkiang (Fu). In Singhiung (chau).
KiUHTSiNG (Fu). At Tseh Mt in SiuENWEi'(chau) in vicinity of copper ore. In Nanying (hien),

and in the chau Lohliang, Chenyih, Malung, and Nanying.
WuTiNG (chau). Iron ore and iron works at Tameti (tsang), Tsetse (tsang), Ineh (tsang), Loti

(tsang), and Sanpu (tsang). Also in Luhkiuen (hien) at Tsiehliu (tsang) and Tsutsu (tsang).
YuNGOHANG (Fu). Iron works at Aying.

TuNGCHUEN (Fu). At Mokwei and Tashuitang. ,

MuNGHWA (ting) In the mountains west of the city,
YuNGPEH (ting). Locality not indicated.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN 113

ORES OF COPPER, SILVER, LEAD, TIN, QUICKSILVER.

PROVINCE OP CHIHLI.

Shtjntien (Pu) or Peking. Silver at Mt. Yinyen 15 li S. of Miyun (liien). Silver at Sz'ling 100

11 N. E. of Miyun (hien).
YuNGPiNG (Fu). Silver 130 li N. W. of Tsiengan (hien). Silver at Mt. Tsu 15 li W. of Lulung

(Men), in vicinity of gold and iron ores. Silver at Mt. Yuhwang 90 li N. E. of Ptjning

(hien). Tin in Tsienngan (hien).
Pauting (Fu). Copper.
SiUENHWA (Fu). Silver in Yu (chau).

PROVINCE OF SHANSI.

Pingting (chau) Copper in Yu (hien).

Tai (chau). Blue and green carbonates of copper.

PiNGTANG (Fu). Copper at Mt. Kiang 20 li S. W. of Kiuhiu (hien).

KiAi (chau). Copper in twelve localities. Silver in Ngani (hien). In Pingloh (hien) silver in

several localities, copper in forty-eight localities, and tin at Mt. £i 60 li N. E. of the city.
Kiang (chau). In Yuenchu (hien). Lead at Mt. Peh, and copper at Mt. Sanchuen 80 li N. of

city. Copper in Wunghi (hien).
LuNGAN (Fu). Copper in all the hien.
TsiN (chau). Tin in Tsinyuen (hien).
TsEH (chau). Copper and tin in Yangching (hien).
Tatung (Fu). Copper. Malachite at Mt. Shilieu 5 li E. of the city.

PROVINCE OF SHENSL

SiNGAN (Fu). Silver. Copper at Mt. Tsungnan 50 li South of city, in vicinity of jadte and iron.

Shang (chau). Cinnabar. In Lohnan (hien), malachite at Mt. Yih 60 li E. of city. Silver and
tin at Mt. To 90 li S. W. ; copper 90 li S. E., and at Sihungnien 50 li S. E. of city.

Hanchung (Fu). Quicksilver and cinnabar at Mt. Sz'ni N. W. of Liayang (hien).

Hingngan (Fu). Blue and green carbonates of copper at Mt. Chinglieu 45 li E. of city. Cinna-
bar and quicksilver at Mt. Shuiyin 140 li N. E. of Sinyang (hien).

PROVINCE OP KANSUH.

PiNGLiANG (Fu). Silver and copper in Pinliang (hien). Silver and copper in Hwating (hien).

Kungchang (Fu). Silver and copper at Mt. Ningkwei 30 li S. of Ningyuen (hien).

KiAi (chau). Quicksilver. Silver at Yinyu T3 li N. W. of Wan (hien).

TsiN (chau). Silver at Mt. Tayang 50 li N. E. of Tsingngan (hien). Copper in Tsingnan (hien).

Silver at Mt. Sungkia 90 li N. B. of Liangtang (hien). Silver in Tsingshui (hien). In

Hwui (hien) lead, and at Mt. Chichi, S. of city, cinnabar.

PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG.

Taingan (Fu). Copper at Mt. Yingliang 30 li N. of Laiwu (hien).

Yenchau (Fu). Tin in Yih (hien). Copper at Mt. Koyeh 15 li S. E. of Ym (hien).

IcHAU (Fu). Lead in Ishui (hien). Silver in vicinity of gold ores, at Mt. Pau 90 li S. W. of

Lanshan (hien). Silver, lead, copper, and tin, as well as gold and iron, at Mt. Chipau

100 li N. of Kii (chau). In Mungying (hien), quicksilver at Mt. Hung 30 li N. of city ;

and silver at Mt. Leanghien 60 li N. W. of city.
■TsiNGCHAU (Fu). Silver, lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, as well as iron, and gold-sand, at Mt. Sung

60 li S, W. of Link5 (hien).

15 July, 1866.

Hi GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

PROYINCE OP KIANGSTJH.

KiANGNiNG (Fu). Copper at Lishui (hien). Copper in vicinity of iron at Mt. Tsz in Kiuyung

(Men).
SucHATJ (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 80 li N. E. of Tungshan (hien).

PROVINCE OF NGANHWUI

Nganking (Fu). Cinnabar in Taihusz'.
HwuiCHAu (Fu). Silver and lead.
NiNGKWOH (Fu). Copper in all the hien.

PROVINCE OF HONAN.

HoNAN (Fu). Lead in Sung (hien), and tin at Mt. Lupan in the same hien.

Nanyang (Fu). Copper at Mt. Chihli in Tsingping (hien). Tin in Yu (chau).

Changteh (Fu). Native copper. Tin in Wungan (hien).

Jtj (chau). Tin,

Shen (chau). Tin in Ltrsm (hien) and in Lingpatj (hien).

PROVINCE OF HUPEH.

Wuchang (Fu). Silver at Mt. Hwangko 2 li W. of Hingkwoh (chau) in vicinity of iron. Copper
in KiANGHiA (hien). Copper in Wuchang (hien). Copper at Mt. Peisuh 60 li N. of
Taye (Men). Tin at Mt. Sieh 5 li S. of Fungtsung (hien).

Nganloh (Fu). Malachite in Tienmun (hien).

YuNYANG (Fu). Tin.

PROVINCE OF SZ'CHUEN.

Chingtu (Fu). Copper in Kien (chau), and in Kingtang (Men).

Mien (chau,). Silver. Tin.

NiNQYUEN (Fu). Silver at Mt. Miloh 200 li E. of Hwuili (chau). In Hwuili (chau) copper at

Fenshuiling 100 li N. of city, and "white copper" (Petung), probably a complex ore, at Mt.

Haichi 120 li S. of city. In the same chau green and blue carbonates of copper. "White

copper in Mienninq (hien). Copper at Mt. Nan in Sichang (hien). Silver at Mt. Koh-

sowa N. W. of Yenyuen (hien).
Chungking (Fu). Copper. Cinnabar in Kikiang (hien).
YuYANG (chau). Quicksilver and Cinnabar in Pangshui (hien).
KwEiCHAU (Fu). Tin.
LuNGNGAN (Fu). Tin and Quicksilver.
TuNGCHUEN (Fu). Green and blue carbonates of copper. Copper at Mt. Komung 30 li N. W.

Chunkiang (hien), also 24 li W. at Mt. Laiyung S., and at Mt, Tungkwei S. W. of the

same hien.
KiATiNG (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 120 li S. W. of Hungya (hien).
KuNG (chau). Copper, in vicinity of iron, at Mt. Kusung 10 li S. of city.
Lu (chau). Blue and green carbonates of copper.
Yachau (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 30 li N. E. of Yungking (hien).
Mau (chau). Cinnabar.

PROVINCE OF KIANGSL

Nanchang (Fu). Copper at Mt. Si.

Jauchau (Fu). In FiiHiNG (hien), copper, and at Mt. Ying, silver.

Kwangsin (Fu). Silver at Yoyang (hien) and Yushan (hien). Lead in Tsienshan (hien).

KiENCHANG (Fu). Silver in Nantsung (hien).

FucHAU (Fu). Copper in Lingtse (hien). In Kinki (hien) silver, and 120 li E. at Mt. Tung

copper.
LiNKiANG (Fu). Silver in Sankau (hien). Copper in Sinytj (hien)
Kanchau (Fu). Copper in Changnin (hien).
Nanngan (Fu). Lead and tin in Tsungni (Men).

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 115

PROVINCE OF HUNAN.

Chanqsha (Fu). Silver, copper, lead, tin, and quicksilver.

Shinohau (Fu). Cinnabar. Quicksilver on Luki river.

Hangchau (Fu). Silver, tin, quicksilver.

YuNGCHAu (Fu). Silver, tin.

YuENCHAU (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver in Tsz'kiang (hien), Funghwang (ting), Ytjngsui

(ting), and Wukang (chau).
Pauking (Fu). Silver. Cinnabar in Wukang (hien).
Chin (chau). Copper, tin, lead, quicksilver, and cinnabar.
KwErvANG (chau). Silver, copper, lead.
Yochatj (Fu). Silver.

PROYINCE OF KWEICHAtr.

KwEiYANG (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver in Kai (chau).

Sz'oHAtJ (Fu). Lead, in vicinity of iron, at Mt. Lungtang B. of the city. Cinnabar and quick-
silver at the Sz'chi river.

TuNGJiN (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver at Mt. Tawan 3 li S. of city.

Shihtsien (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver.

Taxing (Fu). Copper in Weining (chau).

TstTNi (Fu). Quicksilver and Cinnabar.

Sz'NAN (Fu). Cinnabar at Mt. Nitan 5 li S., at Mt. Ningtsing 30 li N. E., and 50 li N. E. of
WtJCHUEN (hien). Quicksilver at Moyu, Pangtsang, and Nientau, in Wtjchuen (hien).

HiNGi (Fu). Quicksilver in vicinity of realgar, at Mt. Peinien. Cinnabar at Lamotsang.

TuYDN (Fu). Lead at Mt. Hianglu in Chingping (hien).

PROVINCE OF CHEHKIANG.

KiAHiNQ (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tsang in Haiyen (hien).

HucSAU (Fu). Copper and tin in Anki (hien). Copper in Wukang (hien) and Changhinq (hien).

NiNGPO (Fu). Tin, in vicinity of gold, on Mt. Kehyu. Copper in Punghwa (hien).

Shauhing (Fu). Copper at Soyachi. Tin at Mt. Tsoking. Quicksilver at Mt. Lungkien in Yuyau
(hien).

Taichau (Fu). Silver and lead at Mt. Tientai and Mt. Tsz'nien in Tientai (hien). Copper, in
vicinity of iron, at Mt. Lungsu in Ninghai (hien).

KiJCHAU (Fu). Silver ore, yielding $300 to the ton, at Mt. Yinkung in Changshan (hien). Cop-
per at Mt. Tung in Singan (hien). Silver at Mt. Yinkung in Suingan (hien).

Yenchau (Fu). In Kiente (hien) copper in Mt. Tungkwei ; and silver in Mt. Yin.

Wanchau (Pu). In PiNGYANG (hien) silver at Mt. Chauki, Mt. Tsz'ye, and Tientsingyang, Silver
on the Chauchi river in Tisung (hien).

Chuchau (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung in Lunqtsiuen (hien). Tin and lead in Sungyang (hien).

PROVINCE OF FUHKIEN.

KiENNiNG (Fu). Silver in the hi^, Kienngan, Kienyang, Pusung, and Tsungho. Copper in

KiENYANG (hien).
Yenping (Fu). Copper in the hien, Nanping, Sha, and Yuki.
YuNGCHUN (chau). Lead in Tating (hien).
LuNGNGAN (chau). Lead in Santsingming and Tsiweitsz'kung.
Tingohau (Fu). Silver at Lungmuntsang in Ninghwa (hien). Silver at Wangpeitsang and Ngan-

fungtsang in Tsangting (hien). Tin at Hiangpau Mt. in Tsangting (hien).

PROVINCE OF EWANGTUNG.

KwANGOHAU (Fu) or Canton. Silver at Tashuikung in Nanhai (hien) and at Peyinkung in

SiNHWUi (hien).
LiBNCHAU (Fu). Silver. Tin at Sangpuhia and Singtanghia in Yangshan (hien) ; in the same

hien lead and cinnabar.

116 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN

HwxJiCHATj (Fu). Tin of excellent quality in Hoyuen (hien) and Ytjngngan (hien).

KiATiNG (chau). Tin in Sanlo (hien) and Hingning (hien).

Shauking (Fu). Silver at Yinkung in Kauming (hien).

KiuNGOHAU (Fu). Blue carbonate of copper. Silver at Litien in Yai (chau).

PROVINCE OF KWANGSL

KwEiLiN (Fu). Silver and Cinnabar.

LiucHATj (Fu). Silver in Siang (chau).

KiNGTTJEN (Fu). Silver at Mt. Mongin 35 li N. W. of Hocm (chau). Tin at Kaufungkung 13 li

W. and Singchaukung 2 li W. of Hochi (chau). Cinnabar at Mt. Hi N. of Ishan (hien),

and at Mt. Kusih in Sz'ngan (hien).
Sz'NGAN (Fu). Lead in Shangling (hien).
PiNQiiOH (Fu). Silver in Pingloh (hien). Silver and tin in Puchuen (hien). Silver at Taiping-

yintsang in Ho (hien). Copper at Mt. Kii 35 li N. E. of Ho (hien). Tin at Tungyuyen

and at Lungtsungyen N. of Ho (hien).
YuHLiN (chau). Cinnabar and quicksilver at Mt. Tungshi 15 li E. of Pehliu (hien).
SiNCHAU (Fu). Silver and lead in Kwei (hien).

PROYINCE OF YUNNAN.
Yunnan (Fu). Copper in Kwungming (hien) and Yxingmen (hien). Malachite in Liutsz' (hien),

WuTiNG (hien), and Lupung (hien).
LiNGAN (Fu). Copper and Tin in Mtjngtsz' (hien).
TsTJHHiuNG (Fu). Silver in Kwangtung (hien), and at Soyangtsang and Malungtsang in Ngan

(chau), and with lead at Yuntsungtsang in TstfHHiUNG (hien).
Chingkiang (Fu). Copper in Lunan (chau).

KwANGSi (chau). Silver and lead at Mt. Peting. Copper at Mt. Chung. Tin at Mt. Shipau.
KiuHTSiNG (Fu). Silver and lead at Mt. Yang W. of Siuenwei (chau). Copper in Pingi (hien).
WuTiNG (chau). Silver in Sutsuweitsang. Copper at Pauhung and Olo. Lead at Mt. Kauyin.
Pu'kh (Fu). Silver, lead, and copper at Pema, Kanku, and Mantau in Sihma (ting). Copper of

best quality at Tsilitutsz'.
Ytjngchang (Fu). Silver at Mingkwang and Aying. Copper and tin at Tangytjeh (chau).
TuNGCHUEN (Fu). Silver in Weitsz' (hien). Mines of Petung ("white copper") at Tangtangtsang

and Taliitsang.
Chautung (Fu). Silver at Lutientsang and Lomatsang, at Tungputsang in Chinhiung (chau),

and at Kiushatsang in Ytjnseh (hien). Copper at Changfapu in Chinhiung (chau), at

Siaunienfang in Yunseh (hien), and at Ninglau Mt. and Tsietsz'tang in Takwan (ting).
YuNGPEH (ting). Copper.

KINGDOM OF COREA.

Gold, silver, quicksilver, iron, coal, and sulphur.

MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS.

PROVINCE OF CHIHLL

Taming (Fu). Nitre on the Siau Ho.

SiuENHWA (Fu). Rock-crystal at Mt. Hwangtsie N. of city. Agates at Sz'kiautungtsing.

PROVINCE OF SHANSL

Tatung (Fu). Agates, sulphate of iron.

Kianq (chau). Sulphate of iron.

LuNGAN (Fu). Amber.

Fanchau (Fu). Gypsum. Nitre. Rock-crystal in Yungning (chau).

TsEHCHAU (Fu). Rock-crystal, Realgar.

CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. , 117

PROYINCE OP SHENSI.

SiNGAN (Pu). Jade, in vicinity of copper and iron, at Tsungnan 50 li S. of city, at Mt. Lantien 30
li B. of Lantien (hien), and at Mt. Li, in vicinity of gold 2 li W. of Linqtung (hien).

Shanq (chau). Jade, in vicinity of gold, at Mt. Yangbwa N. E. of Lohngan (hien).

KiA (chau). Agate in Fukuh (hien) and Shinmui-i (hien).

Hanchung (Fu). Amber in many localities. Peitsui (jadeite) in Liayang (hien). Realgar at
Mt. Putu 60 li S, of Peng (hien).

HiNGNGAN (Pu). Jade at Jit. Ching 58 li W. of Sinyang (hien), and at Kantientsuhtung 60 W.
of Pehho (hien).

Pu (chan). Iron pyrites and sulphur.

PROVINCE OP KANSUH.

KuNGCHANG (Pu). Agatcs. Realgar at Mt. Leangkung S. W. of Min (chau). Nitre in Ningyuen

(hien), and Hwtjining (hien).
KiAi (chau). Realgar. Sulphate of iron.
KiNGYANG (Pu). Nitre in every Hien. Inkstone slate in Ning (chau).

PROVINCE OP SHANTUNG.

Taingan (Pu). Amethyst.
Yenchati (Pu). Amethyst.
IcHAU (Pu). Amethyst.
TuNGCHAU (Pu). G7psum.

Nitre in all parts of the province.
IcHANG (Pu). Agates. Nitre.

PROVINCE OP HONAN.

PROVINCE OP HFPEH.

PROVINCE OP SZ'CHUEN.

Chung (chau). Amber in Liangshan (hien).

KwEiCHAU (Pu). Amber in Wushan (hien) and in Taning (hien).

Suiting (Fu). Amber in Tatsoh (hien) or Ta (hien).

Mei (chau). Nitre.

PROVINCE OP KIANGSI.
Kwangsin (Pu). Rock-crystal in Shangtsau (hien).

' "^ PROVINCE OF HTJNAN.

YuNGSHUN (Pu). Nitre in Pautsing (hien).
YuENOHAU (Fu). Rock-crystal in Yungsui (ting).

PROVINCE OP KWEICHAU.

Nganshun (Pu). Amethyst.

Hinqi (Pu). Realgar at Mt. Peinien.

TsuNi (Pu). Realgar 20 li E. of Tungtsz' (hien).

Sz'nan (Pu). Jade in Yingkiang (hien).

PROVINCE OP CHEHKIANG.

Hangchau (Fu). Gypsum at Mt. Shikau in Sungho (hien).
KtJCHAU (Pu). Lapis-lazuli at Mt. Nien in Changshan (hien).
Yenchau (Fu). Rock-crystal in Suingan (hien).
Wanchau (Fu). Lapis-lazuli on Kinchingshi river, in Lotsing (hien).

118 GEOLOGICAL RESEAKCHES, ETC

PROVINCE or FUHKIEK

Changchatj (Fu). Rock-crystal in Changpu (Lien).
Taiwan (Fu). Sulphur in Changhwa (Men).

PROVINCE OP KWANGTUNG.

KwANGCHATJ (Fu). Amber. Amethyst at Mt. Pan in Tungwei (hien).

Shatjchatj (Fu). Sulphate of iron.

KiuNGOHAU (Fu). Flint at Mt. Li. Whetstone at Mt. Shi. Large rqck-crystals at Mt. Wutsz'.

PROVINCE OF KWANGSI

Sz'CHiNG (Fu). Realgar.

WucHATJ (Fu). Rock-crystal W. of Tsanqhoh (hien).

PROVINCE OF YUNNAN.

Yunnan (Fu). Nitre in Ytjngmen (hien).

"WxiTiNG (chau). Blue jade in Tungsan. Touchstone in the Kinshakiang river. Nitre, from wells,

in Yuenmau (hien).
LiKiANG (Fu). Green and black jade in Mt. Mohpeh.

Ytjngchang (Fu). Amber in Tangyueh (chau). Agates at Mt. Manau in Patjshan (hien). Topaz
and rock-crystal at Mungmitosz' in Paushan (hien). Feitsui, and white and black jade at
Maumotosz', and blue jade at Tungytjeh (ting).

•

The mountains of Southern Yunnan seem to abound in precious stones.

The working of beautiful stones into objects of ornament, forms an important
branch of industry in several of the large cities. Jade of various colors, serpentine,
steatite,^ and dendritic marbles, are made into an endless variety of household orna-
ments. Topaz, aqua-marine, pink turmaline, opaque sapphires, jadeite'' (Feitsui),
lapis-lazuli, sungurshi, a mineral similar to turquois, rock-crystal, garnets, and many
other precious and semi-precious stones, are carved, with great labor and patience,
in very intricate forms. Several snuff bottles carved out of blue corundum were
seen, the caviOy being very small at the neck, and enlarged symmetrically and
polished in the interior.

No diamonds were seen in any of the lapidaries' shops, although the Chinese
have a name for that stoner Emeralds are very rare, and although the Chinese
name is lieupaushi (green precious stone), they are known among lapidaries as
Sz'mulu, the name of Sumatra, whence they are probably "obtained.

Rubies are more common, although often confounded with spinelles and hya-
cinths. SapJ)hires are frequent, and often of fine water and respectable size.

* Much of the stone known as pagodite has been shown by Prof. G. J. Brush to be a compact

pyrophyllite.

" Feitsui is, perhaps, the most prized of all stones among the Chinese. The chalchihuitl, a pre-
cious stone of the ancient Mexicans, as I have seen it in a mask preserved in the museum of Pract.
Geol. in London, and in several ornaments in the collection pf Mr. Squiers in iJew York, is, appa-
rently, the same mineral. This fact is the more remarkable, as there is no known occurrence of this
mineral in America.

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX No. 1.

Description of Fossil Plants from the Chinese Coal-Bearing Modes.
By J. S. Newberry, M. D.

Cleveland, Ohio, September 25th,' 1865.
Raphael Pumpelly, Esq.

Bear Sir : The fossil plants yon were kind enough to submit to me for examination, though few in
number and somewhat fragmentary, have proved to be of very special interest, since they supply the
necessary data for determining, approximately, the age of the strata from which they were taken ;
and rather unexpectedly prove a large part of the great coal fields of China to be of Mesozoic age.

This conclusion is based on the entire absence of Carboniferous plants from the collection ; and the
presence of well-marked Cycads — species of Podozamites and Pterozamites, closely allied to, if not
identical with, some heretofore found in Europe and America.

I give below, such descriptions of the several species contained in the collection, as could be framed
from the somewhat meagre material submitted to me. Future observations, made upon a larger
number of more perfect specimens, will be necessary before questions of specific identity or difference
can be definitively settled — but it is scarcely probable that any facts, or specimens hereafter to be
obtained, will require, modification of the view — that the coal basins which you visited are all Meso-
zoic and not Carboniferous:

We have, of course, no right to assume from the interesting facts your explorations have brought
to light, that no Carboniferous coal exists in China, for it may very well happen, that as in our own
country, coal seams of economical value, but of different ages, will be found there, at points not greatly
removed from each other. But geologists will not fail to be deeply interested in the fact that sa large
portions of the coal basins of China, including beds of both anthracite and bituminous coal — worked
for hundreds of years, probably the oldest coal mines in the world — are wholly excluded from the
Carboniferous formation. So large is this coal-bearing area, indeed, that when joined to the Triassie,
Cretaceous, and Tertiary coals of North America, they quite overshadow the Carboniferous coals of
Europe and the Mississippi valley, and suggest the question, whether the name given to the formation
which includes the most important European strata, has not been somewhat hastily chosen.

Another interesting feature in the fossil plants under consideration is the reappearance, at the far
distant points from whence they come, of genera so well known in European and American geology
— and the entire absence of the species of Phylotheca, Glossopteris, etc. — which have made the Indian
and Australian coal floras so puzzling to the palaeontologist. There are fragments of a new generic
form — probably a Cyead — in the collection, and some obscure specimen^ that may represent other
plants new to science, but the Pecopteris, Sphenopteris, Podozamites, Pterozamites, &c., have a very
familiar look ; and in their resemblance to well known forms, give fresh evidence of the monotony of
the vegetation of the globe,, previous to the introduction of the angiospermous forests of the Creta-
ceous epoch.

Whether the strata which have furnished these plants should be considered Triassie or Jurassic,
remains to be determined by future observations, as the fossils as yet obtained can hardly be considered
sufficient for the solution of that question.

Prom the "Kwei basin" we have numerous pinnee of a species of Podozamites, undistinguishable
from one found by Prof. Emmons in North Carolina, in strata now generally regarded as Triassie ;

(119)

120 APPENDIX.

but associated with these are a few pinfiee of different form — much more elongated and acute — scarcely-
differing from those of a European Jurassic species (P. lancolotus, Lind.), still the evidence of identity
is much stronger in regard to the former species than the latter.

From Pyiinsz' we have a fine Pecopteris, with the falcate pinnules — so characteristic of the Meso-
zoic species, and indeed very accurately copying the form of F. Whitbiensis, a European Jurassic
species — but unfortunately the strata which contain this fossil have been much metamorphosed, the
coal converted to anthracite, and the nervation of the fern has been entirely obliterated, while the
outline remains distinct.

Probably it will be found as difficult, or rather as impossible, in China, as it has been in this
country, to identify all the subdivisions of the Mesozoic strata discernible in Europe ; yet we shall
doubtless gather there new proofs of the constancy of the order of sequence in geological history, and
new evidence of the stability of the foundations on which geology, as a science, rests.

I have under my eye, as I write this letter, four collections of fossil plants which, though from very
widely separated localities, are curiously linked together. They are : —

1st. Fossil plants, Cycads and Conifers, collected by myself from the gypsum formation (Triassic)
at Abiquiu, New Mexico. Of this collection the most conspicuous and interesting plant is Otozamites,
Macombii, N.

2d. A collection of fossil plants — Cycads and Ferns, received through Prof Whitney from Sonora,
Mexico, where they occur with coal strata and Triassic Mollusks. In this collection Otozamites,
Macombii is associated with Strangerites magnifolia, Rogers, Pecopteris falcatus, Emm, and other
plants occurring abundantly in North Carolina.

3d. A collection of fossil plants — Cycads, Conifers, and iferns, from N. Carolina and Virginia, in-
cluding beside the last two mentioned, and many others which are new, several species, apparently
identical with European Triassic plants — of the genera Haidingera ,Gutbiera, Laccopteris, &c., and
among other Cycads, Podozamites Emmonsii, N.

4. The collection made by yourself in China — Cycads and Ferns — in which one of the most distinctly
marked plants is P. Ummonsii.

In regard to the American localities cited above, there is, perhaps, no good reason for our with-
holding assent to the conclusion that the rocks furnishing the fossil plants are Triassic, but, when we
remember how much difference of opinion there has been, and indeed still is, upon this subject, even in
the light of large collections of fossils, we can hardly with propriety offer even a conjecture as to the
precise age of the Chinese coal strata.

To recapitulate — one species of Podozamites, contained in the collection is apparently identical
with an American Triassic species ; the other more resembles a European Jurassic plant. The
Pterozamites resembles both Triassic and Jurassic species, but is identical with neither.

The Pecopteris has certainly a remarkable likeness to P. Whitbiensis, which occurs both in the
Liassic and Oolitic floras ; and it is not yet certain that it is not also found in the Carolina and
Richmond coal basins.

The Sphenopteris and Hymenophyllites are altogether new, and suggest no afiSnities of value in
this connection, while the Taxites, Equisetites, &c., are too obscure to afford us any help.

Yours respectfully,

J. S. NEWBERRY

Pterozamites Sinensis, Newh.

Plate IX, Fig. 3.
Pt. fronde pinnata, parva, pinnis linearibus patentissimis integris, sub-approximatis vel remotis, sspe curvatis,
basi integris, apice rotundatis, nervis distinetis sequalibus simplioibus, rachi longitudinaliter striata.

This is a very neat and well-marked, though miniature species of Pterozamites, having the general
aspect of Pt. Oeynhausianus, Goepp., but being less than half the size of ^that species, and the
pinnae are not at all decurrent on the rachis.

Perhaps of all known species Pt. linearis, of Emmons (Manual of Geol. fig. 194), from the Trias
of North Carolina, most resembles this plant ; but in that the pinnas are much more crowded.

APPENDIX. 121

In the specimens obtained by Mr. Pumpelly, fragments of a number of different fronds arc shown,
all of about the same size, so we may conclude that the figure now given is a fair representation of
the plant.

Locality. — In brown sandstone, with Sphenopteris orientalis, from Sanyii, west of Poking.

PODOZAMITES LANCEOLATUS, lAncIl. Sp.

Plate IX, Fig. 7.

Zamia lanceolata, Lind. & HnTT. Foss. Flor. Vol. Ill, fig. 4.
Zamites lanceolatus, MoBEis, An. Nat. Hist. 1841.

I have provisionally, and with doubt, referred a few pinnse of Podozamiles, found in the collection,
to this species. These pinnae have almost precisely the form of those figured by Lindley, and are
longer and narrower than those of F. JEmmonsii — being linear-lanceolate, with an acute long drawn
point, and an attenuated base.

In one character they differ from both the species to which I have referred ; they seem to have been
thicker and more coriaceous than either — the nerves being so deeply buried in the parenchyma as to
be scarcely visible.

The distinctnegs of the nerves depends, however, on the surface of the leaflet exposed, and on the
manner of fossilization — coarse micaceous shales, like that which contains the impression before us,
rarely showing the nervation with distinctness.

The small number of the pinnas, of the character I have described, in the collection, renders it
difficult to determine, with accuracy, their specific relations. Their value, therefore, in a great degree,
consists in the evidence they give us of the presence of the genus to which they belong in the rocks
from which they were taken.

Locality. — Kwei basin on the Yangtse river. Province of Hupeh, China.

PoDOZAMiTES Emmonsii, Newb.

■"late IX, Fig. 2.

P. fronde pinnata, pinnis distautibus integris alternis oppositisve, lanoeolatis, apioe attenuatls acutis, basi cuneatis,
nervis orebris.

This is, apparently, the same plant as that described and figured by Prof Emmons (Geol. N. Car.
p. 331, pi. iii, fig. t), under the name of P. lanceolatus ; but that name having been appropriated
for another species from the Oolite of Europe, it becomes necessary to give it another.

The specimens which are contained in the collection brought by Mr. Pumpelly, consist mostly of
'letached pinnse, scattered in confusion over the surface of pieces of blue shale. These pinnae agree
perfectly in form and nervation with those of the Carolina plant. They are lanceolate in outline, and
rather abruptly narrowed to an acute termination at either end. The nerves are fine and numerous,
but distinctly visible, converging to a common point at the remote extremity. The rachis to which
all were, and a few are still attached, was slender, and striated longitudinally. The specimen figured
by Prof. Emmons is the basal portion of the frond where the rachis is strongest. Higher up this
character, to which he attaches some importance, would be lost. The Carolina plant is abundant in
the upper plant beds, where it is associated with several species supposed to be identical with some
from the Trias (Kenper) of Europe, such as Fecopteris Sttdgardtensis, Laccopteris germinans, &e. ;
it is, however, not quite certain that there are not also found there some species which are found in
the Jurassic of Europe. More careful study of this flora will be necessary before that question can
be settled ; but the beds which contain F. Emmonsii are now generally supposed to represent the
Keuper of Europe, and the evidence which this gives, as to the age of the Chinese rocks containing
it, so far as it goes, points to the same date for them.

Locality. — Kwei basin on the Yangtse river, Province of Hupeh, China.

16 July, 1868.

122 APPENDIX.

Sphenopteris orientalis, Newh.

Plate IX, Figs. 1 and 1 a.

S. fronde tripinnata, racWde longitudinater sulcata, pirniis lanceolatis vel linearjbus, aoutis, pinnulis sessilibns
summis lobatis, inferioribus laoiniatis, laciniis rotundatis, apioe ssepe emarginatis nervis tenuis, in lobis
dichotomis.

This species is more largely represented in the collection than any other, and yet all the specimens
consist of comparatively small fragments of a frond of considerable size.

In nearly all of these specimens a remarkable inequality is observable between the pinnules of the
upper and under side of the rachis of each pinna — the upper ones being shorter, broader, and more
upright ; the lower ones elongated, narrow, and more oblique to the rachis.

Probably this is a constant character in the plant, as examples of similar diversity of form are not
wanting among living ferns ; but I have seen instances of distortion not unlike this in ferns imbedded
in rocks which had been much disturbed.

In general aspect this species is not dissimilar to some Carboniferous ferns, such as Sph. Schlo-
theimi, Sph. tridactylites, &c., but it still more regembles the Oolitic species Sph. denticulata and
Bph. hymenophylloides, and the Triassic species Sph. dichotoma, Alth. It is also considerably like
a Triassic species not yet described, found near Baltimore, Md. From all these, h«wever, it is appa-
rently distinguished by the dissimilarity of form in the pinnules of the upper and lower side of the
pinnae, and by the shape of the lobes of the pinnules. In the upper pinnules the lobes are spatulate ;
in the lower, fan-shaped. Some of the lobes are straightly emarginate at the summit, but generally
they have the appearance of being rounded and entire.

Locality. — Sanyii Chaitang basin, west of Peking, China.

Pecopteeis Whitbiensis 1 Brong.

Plate IX, Fig. 6.

From " Piyiinsz', west of Peking," in a coarse shale charged with the bitumen driven off from the
associated coal seam — now anthracite — is a fragment including several pinuaa of the frond of a large
fern, which bears a marked resemblance to P. Whiibiensis ; so much so, that if the nervation, which
is obliterated in the specimen before us, were found to be similar, I should have no hesitation in
referring it to that species, as no Carboniferous ferns exhibit that peculiar falcate outline of the
pinnules, so marked in P. Whitbiensis, P. dentata, Lind. (P. denticulata, Brong.), etc.

P. Whitbiensis is in Europe found both in the Lias and Oolite, according to Brongniart, but is
regarded as distinctly a Jurassic species." It has been supposed to occur in the Richmond coal basin
in this country ; but some of the specimens thought to represent the plant, have been found by Prof.
Ileer to have a reticulated nervation, and therefore to be, both specifically and generically, distinct
from P. Whitbiensis. A careful examination of all the specimens collected in this country, supposed
to belong to P. Whiibiensis, will be necessary before we can decide whether it has indeed been found
in the so-called Triassic strata of America; and unfortunately we must wait till other specimens, and
such as are in a better state of preservation, shall be brought from China before we can positively
affirm that it occurs in the coal strata of that country.

Locality. — Shale over anthracite coal, at Piyiinsz', west of Peking, China.

Hymenophtllites tenellus, Newh.

Plate IX, Fig. 6.

H. fronde bipinnata, parva, delioatula ; pinnis lineari-lanceolatis, pinnulis laoiniatis ; laciniis filiformis vel epatu-
latis acutis ; soi'i subrotundi laciniarnm apicibus insidentes.

In the plumbaginous schist brought from " Piyiinsz', west of Peking," are numerous fragments of a
frond of a species of Hymenophyllites, which seems to be undescribed. These fragments are so
small that no clear idea can be gained from them of the magnitude or form of the frond ; but it was

APPENDIX. 123

doubtless a- delicate fern of small size, the pinnules deeply cut into linear or spatulato lobes, those
of the fertile portions of the frond being specially slender, aud bearing the sori at the extremijty of
each lobe. A fruit-bearing fragment visible in one of the specimens before us calls to mind Lindley's
Tymfanophora racemosa, which is now regarded as the fertile portion of the frond of Ooniopteris
Murrayana.

This fossil also occurs at Sanyii, near Chaitang, with Sphen. orierdalis, thus linking together,
geologically, these two localities.

Taxites spatulatus, Newb.

Plate IX, Fig. 4.

T. foliis coriaceis lineari-lauceolatis vel spatulatis, curvatis, apice rotundatis, basi cuneatis, nervo medio valde
distincto.

In a yellow sandy schist, from near the Futau mine at Chaitang, with pinnte of Podozamitps, are
numerous linear or spatulate one-nerved leaves, evidently derived from some coniferous tree, appa-
rently of the family of Taxineae, though larger than the leaves of any of the known Yews.

By their size, curved outline, cuneate base, and their variable width, these leaves bear some resem-
blance to some of those which have been referred to the genus Podocarpus, but with one exception
all the described fossil species have been found in Tertiary rocks. The exception referred to is
Podocarpiles acicularis, Andrse, from the Lias of Steierdorf, in which the leaves are very long and
narrow, having more the form of those of a pine.

Podocarpus Taxites, TJnger (Flor. Foss. v. Sotzka), has almost precisely the form of some of the
leaves before us ; but it is very doubtful whether that was really a Podocarpus.

Brongniart has enumerated in his Prodromus a Taxites podocarpoides, from the Oolite of Stones-
field, but no figure or description of it has yet been given Possibly that species may have relations
with the one under consideration, which would give the latter a value in determining the precise age
of the rocks which contain it.

APPENDIX NO. 2.

Analyses of Chinese and Japanese Coals.

Made for R. Pumpelly by Mr. James A. Macdontald, M. A., of the Sheffield Laboratory, Tale

College.

In the following analyses each determination is the mean of two closely agreeing ones. For the
water determination the coal was pulverized and heated in an air-bath at 110° C. until it gave a
constant weight. A portion was then ignited in fragments, in a closed crucible, to determine the
"volatile matter." The ash was estimated in the usual manner by incineration.

I. Tatsatj mine (43 f©et seam) near Chaitang.

Hard anthracite. Decrepitates very slightly, and yields a little HO in a closed tube. Spec.

grav. 1.5 T.

Carbon 89.81

Volatile matter .3.08

Water 2.67

Ash 4.44

100.00

II. FtiTAU.mine. Chaitang (west of Peking).

Bright, bituminous, coking coal, yielding a little HO in the closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.30.

Carbon 85.77

Volatile matter 11.94

Water 0.35

Ash 1.94

100.00

124 APPENDIX.

III. Chingshui (near Chaitang W. of Peking).

Soft, biturninous coal, coking in a tube and giving some HO. Spec. grav. 1.37.

Carbon 81.32

Volatile matter 5.62

Water 0.36

Ash 12.70

100.00

IV. Teyih mine (near Muntakau W. of Peking).

Soft, crumbling anthracite. Gives some HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.74.

Carbon 80.75

Volatile matter 6.43

Water 2.42

Ash 11.40

100.00

V. Tashitung mine (Pangshan S. W. of Peking).

Hard anthracite, coated with some carbonate. Decrepitates and gives off some HO in a closed
tube. Spec. grav. 1.84.

Carbon ........'. 86.62

Volatile matter 4.64

Water 2.64

Ash 6.10

100.00

VI. KwEi (first mine above Kwei on the upper Yangtse in Hupeh).

Rather a soft coal. When heated in a closed tube gives off HO, and a slightly bituminous odor,
without decrepitating. Spec. grav. 1.44.

Carbon 85.63

Volatile matter 4.10

Water 0.38

Ash 9.89

100.00

VII. Mine of Siangtung (in Hunan).

Hard, fine-grained anthracite. Gives off HO, and decrepitates violently in a closed tube. Spec.

grav. 1.65.

Carbon 96.21

Volatile matter 0.65

Water 1.45

Ash . . 1.69

100.00

VIII. Another coal from Siangtung.

Hard anthracite. Gives HO in a closed tube, and decrepitates but slightly. Spec. grav. 1.61.

Carbon 94.59

Volatile matter 1.18

Water 1.65

Ash 2.58

100.00

IX. Laicha Ho (Southern Hunan).

Hard anthracite. Yields HO and considerable sulphur on heating in a closed tube. Spec.

grav. 1.47.

Carbon 88.27

Volatile matter 2.92

Water 0.80

Ash 8.01

100.00

APPENDIX. 125

X. Hangchau (Southern Hunan).

Rather soft, bituminous coal, coking in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.G8.

Carbon 71.80

Volatile matter 15.89

Water 0.65

Ash 11.66

100.00

XI. Mine near Fangshan (S. W. of Peking).

Hard anthracite. Yields HO, and decrepitates in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.83.

Carbon 90 02 ^

Volatile matter 2.68

Water 2.20

Ash 5.10

100.00

XII. Coal from Tatting in Shansi.

Clear black, moderately hard bituminous coking coal. Decrepitates slightly. Spec. grav. 1.30.

Carbon 65.30

Volatile matter 28.69

Water 1.47

Ash 4.54

100.00

XIII. Coal from Dotjt (island of Sagalien).

Clear black, bituminous coking coal. Spec. grav. 1.31.

Carbon 67.51

Volatile matter 22.98

Water 3.51

Ash 6.00

100.00

XIV. Coal from Iwanai (island of Tesso).

Clear, smooth, black or brownish coal. Gives off HO, and cokes in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.26.

Carbon 60.26

Volatile matter 29.72

Water 2.30

Ash ... * 7.72

100.00

XV. Yingwo mine (Fangshan S. W. of Peking).

Soft crumbling anthracite. Yields considerable HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. ?

Carbon 77.58

Volatile matter . . 3.63

Water . . 2.50

Ash 16.29

100.00

126 APPENDIX.

APPENDIX No. 3.

Letter from Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards on the Results of an Examination, under the
Microscope, of some Japanese Infusorial Earths and other. Deposits of China and
Mongolia.

New York, January 14, 1866.
Raphael Pumpelly, Esq.

Dear Sir : ■ I have, agreeably to your request, made a microscopical examination of the specimens
of earths you submitted to me some time since, and have to report thereon as follows : —

They were thirteen in number, and the results of examining each one separately and carefully is
recorded below. With regard to the two specimens numbered 6 and 9, in which J have found the
siliceous loricae of Diatomacese, I have to regret that the time at my disposal lately has been so short
that I have been unable to identify the various species detected therein, much less have I been able
to do as I would have wished, that is to say, transmit to you at this time a complete list with descrip-
tions and figures of the supposed new forms. '*

No. 1. " Efflorescence from the plains of the Kirnoor, Mongolia."

This specimen contains some straight sponge spiculse and broken crystalline particles of -a deep
olive-green color ; otherwise it consists mostly of fine particles of sand. From the presence of the
sponge-spieulEB I judge this deposit to be decidedly of aquatic origin and probably marine ; although
the form of the spiculte, as well as I can tell from their generally broken condition, is such that they
may have belonged to a fresh-water species of sponge.

No. 2. " Terrace deposit (loam of lower terrace) T6 Hai, Mongolia."

Under the microscope this is very similar to the above, that is to say, it contains many of the green
crystalline particles found in No. 1, but no sponge-spiculae that I have been able to detect.

No. 3. Efflorescence (with sand), from the fiat at the Te Hai Mongolia."

This is also very like the first in appearance, in containing green crystals, but, like the second
specimen it contains no sponge-spicute, so that in neither of these two last numbers have I found any-
thing that would assist in determining their origin.

No. 4. " Gobi limestone (steppe deposit in part), Nov. 28, 1864."

Consists almost entirely of fine white particles of calcareous matter, but shows nothing to indicate
the circumstances or conditions under which it was deposited. This was to be expected as the micro-
scope rarely reveals anything peculiar in limestones, their origin being best denoted by the character
of the large fossils when these are present.

No. 5. "Lake loam, Siwan, N. Chihli," is mostly sand, and contains a few of the before men-
tioned green crystals, but no traces of the remains of organized beings.

No. 6. " Forming bluff near Nietanai, Yesso."

No. 9. " From bluff near Nietanai, Yesso."

These both evidently belong to the same deposit, taken at different depths most likely, as is evident
from the remains of organized forms which they contain. They are plainly from a marine tertiary
stratum similar in character to that discovered by Prof. Rogers underlying the cities of Richmond
and Petersburg in Virginia, and also like that found by Prof W. P. Blake at Monterey in California.
The last mentioned deposit I have at present under examination for the State survey of California,
and it has been found by Prof Whitney, and his coadjutors of the survey, at different points extending
some hundreds of miles down the Pacific coast, varying slightly in appearance, color, hardness, or
the grouping of the forms contained in it, as it was collected at various localities, but plainly showing

APPENDIX. 127

that there is one extended deposit covering a great extent of country. In fact the Japan specimens
resemble those from California in a very marked degree, and much more so than the Virginian ones,
containing almost identically the same species of Diatomacete that I have found therein. I am not, at
present, prepared to give a list of those species, but the following genera have been identified, all of
which, with the exception of the last, are exclusively marine, but the species of that last genus Gocco-
neis, found ia this deposit, are decidedly of marine origin also.

Arachnoidiscus. Creswellia.

Auliscus. Dictyocha.

Asterolavipra. Isthmia.

Aotinoptychus. Gephyria.

Aulaoodiscus. Orammaiophora,

Stictodiscus. Bhabdonema.

Goscinodiscus. Biddulphia.

Triceratium. Gocconeis.

Doubtless species belonging to other genera will be detected hereafter, when I study these speci-
mens more attentively, when it is my intention to make out a full list of the species I may find and
publish it, with descriptions and figures of such as I consider new or undescribed, through the
medium of some one of our scientific societies. Meantime I send you herewith a couple of slides of
this material, mounted in such a manner that you can judge for yourself of its richness in microscopic
forms and their beauty, and in many cases, identity with those found in the Californian stratum, a
slide of which accompanies them.

No. *l. " Terrace deposit (loam) from the valley north of the mountains of Sinpaungan."
Contains little but sand with a very few of the green colored crystals above mentioned interspersed
through it.

No. 8. "Terrace deposit (loam) from Siwan, N. Ghihli, Ghina." '

This contains nothing of interest or by means ot which its origin can be traced.

No. 10. "Gobi Sandstone, steppe deposit, Dec. 2, 1864."

Consists entirely of clean coarse sandy particles, semi-crystalline in character, and with, or in which
the microscope reveals, no traces of organic remains.

No. 11. " From the beds of volcanic ashes at Isoya, west coast of Yesso, Japan."
This specimen was. examined in a superficial manner at first, but^ besides consisting for the most
part of pinkish particles of minute size whose origin could hardly be guessed at, was deemed of very
little interest. A closer and more thorough examination, however, with higher power glasses revealed
decided traces of organic remains and those of an entirely unlocked for character, that is to say, there
were found in it, although only in extremely small number^, straight sponge spicules as well as globular,
so-called, " gemmules" from sponges, and at the same time dotted ducts from the woody portion of
some exogenous plant. Besides these, strange to say, I found fragments of the siliceous epidermis
of three or perhaps four species of Diatomacese, decidedly aquatic plants and, in this case, all marine
•in their habit. The genera represented in these very rare and minute fragments were Arachnoidiscus,
Gyclotella, Isthmia, and probably Goscinodiscus. Besides these the green colored crystals mentioned
above, as having been detected in several of the earths examined, were seen in this specimen showing
that there exists some connection between these various specimens in their origin.

No. 12. "Alkaline sand from the shore of Lake Kirnoor, Mongolia."
No. 13. "Sand deposited in the valleys around Lake Bilikanoor, Gobi desert."
In neither of these specimens could I find the slightest traces of the remains of organized beings
or anything else by means of which I could judge of their origin. Thus, although the results of my
examination, conducted in the most careful manner, are in most cases but negative, yet, even there-
fore they are of interest, and you will be better able to judge than I am of their value. Th'e dis-

128 APPENDIX.

covery of anotlier marine stratum consisting of the siliceous epidermis of Diatomacese in such an un-
locked for locality, is of the greatest interest, and will, it is to be hoped, assist somewhat in deciding
the true position of such commonly called "infusorial earths." Its similarity to that found on the
Pacific coast of North America, would seem to point to its identity in time with that widely extended
stratum, and doubtless the results which we have a right to expect from the very complete survey of
the State of California, now being carried on, will shed much light on this point. Prof Toumey
placed the stratum of "Virginia much lower than had been done by Prof. Rogers, and the correctness
or incorrectness of his views in this respect and as bearing on the Californian and Japan deposits, can
only be demonstrated after a careful examination and comparison of the adjacent strata. It is desirable
that the layer extending from Petersburg in Virginia almost to Baltimore in Maryland, should be
examined by a competent observer, and its characters be carefully determined and noted so that they
can be compared with those of the Pacific. I hope, ere long, to be able to contribute something
towards that end, but extended suites of specimens will have to be collected before we can hope to
arrive at any very definite results. Meantime the discovery of such a stratum in Japan will lead to
searches for similar deposits in other parts of the world, and I trust and fully expect with success.

Respectfully yours,

ARTHUR MEAD EDWARDS.

INDEX.

F = f", departmental city ; C = Chau, sometimes departmental-, but generally district-city ; H = nien, district

town ; T = Ting, and Ts =: Tsang, smaller towns.

Abel, Clarke, 51, 52, 65

on height of Lake
Lo, 48
Abura, tufa-sandstone at,

99
Achase, tufa-conglumerate

near, 98
aclcularis, Podooarpites,

123
Actinoptychus, 127
Agates, 116, 117, 118
Agate pebbles on plains of

Mongolia, 70
Ainos, settlement of, 90
Alacodiscus, 127
Alluvial watersheds, 28
deposits near Itu, 7
loam deposit near Bili-
ka Noor, 71
Altai mountains, 67, 68
rooks of Eastern, 74
Altan Kingan mountains,

67
Alteration of rook by vol-
canic gases, 96
Alum produced by altera-
tion of felspar, 96
and sulphur on Esan, 86
in China, 56, 57, 58
Amaksa, limestone and

sandstone on, 107
Amber, 116, 117, 118
Amethyst, 117, 118
Amherst's embassy, ob-
servations of Lord, 7
Ammonites from N. Tesso,

106
Amur river, 2, 67

recent terraces along,
lOS
Amygdaloid, 22

in conglomerate of Oou-

ta, 100, 104
of W. Yesso, age of, 101
of the Ousubetz creek,

101
in Kunnui gravel, 91
at Kunnui, 91
near Kunnui, 91
Analyses of Chinese and
Japanese coals, 123
of Chinese coals :
Futau (bitum.), 15,

123
Hsingshun i(bitum.),

15
Tatsau (anthr.), 16,

123
17 August, 1866.

Analyses of Chingshui
(bitum.), 17, 124
Tehyih, 19, 124
Yingwo, 19, 125
Tashhitang, 19, 124
Ancient lake area, present
drainage of, 44
gold washings, remains

of, at Kunnui, 93
method of gold wash-
ing, 91
lake system of northern

China, 40
lakes of northern China,

islands in, 40
lake deposit independ-
, ent of present water-
courses, 32
lake loam a river-silt, 42
lakes, extent of, 44
watch-towers near the
T6Hai, 30
Angara river, tables along,

75,76
Angouli Noor, 26
Anki (H.), 115
Anko, 58

anthracite at, 65
Anthracite, 11, 122
inChina^ll9

localities of, 56, 57,
58
and coalSj analyses of,

123, 124, 125

of Tatsau mine, 15, 123

assay, production,

and cost of, 16, 123

of Kiming, 22

from Tashhitang, mine,

analyses of, 19, 124
of Yingwo mine, analy-
ses of, 19, 125
of Kwei basin, 6, 124
Anticlinal axis of south-
eastern peninsula of
Yesso, 106
ridges, 44

central axis of China, 2,
63
AphanitS at Oouta, 100,
101
of western Yesso, rela-
tive age of, 104
near Futoro, 100
Appalachians, 69

analogous to the Sini-
ans, 62, 68
Appendix No. 1, 119

Appendix No. 2, 123
No. 3, 126
Aracbnoidiscus, 127
Aralo-Caspian depression,

69,77
Arch of marble at Kiyung-

kwau, 12
Arctic Ocean, 74, 77
Arenaceous limestone of

the steppe deposit, 71
Argillaceous and talco-
argillaceous rooks
near Nagasaki, 107
rock with fossil plants,

on Kaiyanobetz, 97
schist in Kingan moun-
tains, 68
Argillite with vermiform
fossil,' 102, 104, 105
at Kunnui, 91
at Isoya, 93 ,
near Achase, 98
near Washinoki, 90
metamorphic, at Yu-
rup, 102
Argillites of lohinowatari,

80
Argun river, 68
Art based on the curious
in nature in China and
Japan, 62
Artificial deposit in a lime

quarry, 12
Ascent to the plateau north

of Kalgan, 25
Asterolampra, 127
Auliscns, 127
Aulopora tubseformis, 55
Auriferous gravel of Kun-
nui, 91, 105, 106
Australian coal flora, 119
Ava, 66
Axial granite, 2
Axis, central anticlinal, of
China, 2, 63
east of coast range, 65
coast, of elevation, 65
Aying, 112, 116

Bagley, Rev. P., 56, 57
Baikal, lake, 75

volcanic rooks of lake,

75
N. E., S. W. trend of, 1
Baltic, 69

Baltimore, 122, 128
Bamboo, species of, on
Yesso, 79

Barabinski steppe, 69, 77
Barkoul, 60

Barrier range, 23, 31, 32,
63
gorge traversing, 32
metamorphic

schists of, 32
hornblendio rocks
of, 35, 36
Barrow's estimate of silt
discharged by Yellow
river, 49
Bars isolating lakes, 41
Barytes in Yurup veins,

102
Basalt hills, 74
Basaltic lavas of the pla-
teau, 38
cones on the Gobi
desert, 73
Bay of Odaszu, 106

of Yeddo, 107
Beds of chert in limestone,

12
Beech trees on Yesso, 93
Belgium, 54
Betz (creek), 90
Biddulphia, 127
Bilika Noor, beds of lime-
stone, gypsum, etc.,
near, 71
erosion near, 77
earth from, under mi-
croscope, 127
Eiot, E., 48, 66, 57

memoir of, on the
Yellow river, 47
on the Yukung, 47
Birch trees on Yesso, 93
Bituminous coal at Ching-
shui, 17, 124
Blackiston, Capt., 5, 6, 8,
64
observations of, in Sz'-
chuen, 62

Black slate near Kanchau,

52
Black sea, 77
Blake, Prof. W. P., 80, 126
Blast, first, made in Japan,
89
furnaces on European
model smelting
iron ore in Nam-
bu, 88
European, at Kobi,

&

(129)

130

INDEX.

Board of Foreign Affairs at

Peking, 49
Bogdo oola, Mt., 74
Bohea mountains, 52
Bombs, lava, ou Komanga-

■laki, 83
Bonny, Rev. Mr., 52
Boroseiji, lama-monastery

of, 26
Boa urus, 17
Bouran (snow-storm), 73
Brachiopods, fossil, 56,
57, 58, 62, 65
from Eastern Tibet, 55
piobaWy from lime-
stone, 6
Breccias, volcanic, of Yes-

so, 105
British America, 69
Brongniart, 123
Brcwu-coal basin near
Kalgan, 25
tertiary, 62
Bryozoa in terrace-clay of

Kunnui, 91
Buddha, figure of, sculp-
tured in a cavern, 13
the living, of Urga, 75
V. Bunge, 70
Bureja mountains, 68
Byrranga mountains, N.E.,
S. W. trend of, 1

Calamite, a, from Ichino-

watari, 80

Calcareous deposit of

former springs, 28

loam of ancient lake

(terrace) deposit, 40

sandstone of the steppe

deposit, 71
tufa at Tsingtan on
Yangtse, 8
Calcsinter deposit, 101
Calcite io Yurup veins, 102
California, infusorial earth

of, 88, 126, 127, 128
Camels used to transport

coal, 20
Canton, 2, 115

graywacke and red

sandstone near, 53
granite near, 53
to the sea, 53
to Hankau, 52
Cane undergrowth on Yes-

so, 93
Cape Blnnt (Shiwokubi), 89
Carboniferous plants in

China, absence of, 119
Caspian, 76, 77
Caverns in China, 66, 57,
58, 62, 65
in Shihtsien (F) and

Chingnen (F), 63
in limestone, 12
of Fangshan, 12
of Kwangyin, 52
ossiferous, 13
sacred to Buddha, 13

"Cave of the Winds," 56
Cellular granite in Nankau

pass, 21, 34
Central Asia, importance
of studying its past
and present physical
geography, 77

Central China, snowy
peaks in, 66
anticlinal axis of China,
2
Chaganoussu, undrained

lake of, 28
Chaitang, 56, 109, 122, 123
floal at, 11
description of coal dis

trict of, 14
former lake at, 14
Chalcedony, 74, 93

pebbles on plains of

Mongolia, 70
on the Gobi desert, 73
in amygdaloid at Shi-

rarika, 90
in Kunnui gravel, 91
amygdules at Oouta,
100
Chalybeate spring, deposit

of iron-oxide from, 96
Chang mountain, 110
Changohau (F), 58, 112,

118
Changfapu, 116
Changhing (H), 115
Changhwa (H), 57, 118
Changkiakau, 23
Changkauyii, anthracite

mines at, 19
Changnin (H), 114
Changpang shan, 61
Changpeh shan, 64
Changping (C), 46
Changpu (H), 118
Changsha (F), 52, 68, 61,

111, 115
Changshaa (H), 58, 115,

117
Changteh (F), 58, 61, 110,

111, 114
Changtsing (H), 46
Chang-wu, 48

mouth of Yellow river
at, under Han dyn, 50
Changyang (H), 57
Charcoal furnaces at Yu-
rup, 103
Chatau, granite at, 22

and Eiming, recent lake
between, 45

Chauchi river, 115
Chauchuen, metamorphic
schists, limestone,
porphyry-breccia,
and eurite near, 34
terrace deposit in valley
of, 34
Chaukang mountain, 112
Chauki mountain, 115
Chautung (P), 116
Chauyang (H), 56, 57
chechiel, Spirifer, 55
Chehkiang, province of, 57,
58, 60, 112, 115, 117
and Fuhkien, 52
river, 52
Chenyih (C), 112
Chert in lower limestone,

6, 12
Chichi mountain, 113
Chichuen (H), 110
Chifu, metamorphic rocks
at, 63

Chihli province, 5, 56, 60,
63, 109, 113, 116

Cbihll, earthquakes in the
province of, 76
granite and metamor-
phic schists in, 10
height of granite mass

in, 10
limestone in, 10
observations in, 10
volcanic rocks in, 10
mountain, 114
Chin (C), 61, 111, 115
China, fossils from, 64, 66,
57,58
fossil plants from, 119
Chinese Coal measures, 4,
5,67
histories of the Yellow

river, 47
li, 50

mining, defective, 15
records of volcanic ac-
tion in the Tienshan,
76
Repository, 53, 65
traditions of deluges,
144
Ching mountain, 117
Chingching (H), 56
Chingkang mountain, 112
Chingshui, 56, 109
porphyries at, 17
analysis of coal from,

124
coal mines, 17
ChingUeu mountain, 113
Chingping (H), 116
Chingteh (F), 57
Chingting (P), 46, 56
Chingtu (F), 59, 60, 111,

114
Chinhlung (C), 116
Chin Hu Wei, comment-
ary of, on the Yukung, 47,
48
Chinkiang (F), 7, 57, 110,

112, 116
Chinsi, 60
Chinyuen (P), 58

marble and caverns in,
63
Chipaushan, 60, 110, 113
Chlorite in the Eakumi

porphyry, 84
Chloritic and micaceous
schists in Kunnui
gravel, 91, 106
gneiss, 35

and chloritic schist

near Siwan, 34
on the plateau, 26
granite, 27, 75

ou the Ousubetz
creek, 101
rocks near Shachung,

35
series of metamorphic

rocks, 41
schist on the Yangtse, 4
Chuchau (F), 58, 60, 112,
115
coal field of, 65
Chung (C), 57, 59, 60, 111,

117
Chung mountain, 116
Chungking (F), 67, 59, 60,

111, 114
Chungpu (H), 110
Chunhwachen, 57

Chunklang (H), 114
Churin chelu. Lamasery of,

74
Chusan archipelago, 2

islands, granite on, 65
Chwanchio and Kingkung,

battle between, 44
Cinnabar, 110, 113, 114,

116, 116, 117
Clarke, Abel, 48, 51
Clay schist, 72, 76

inhillsof Senji,72
in Tomari gravel,
99
shale with Equisetaoeae,
on Kaiyanobetz creek,
97
slates, 74

of YesBO, 104
under basalt, 73
and quartz-schist

at Kudo, 101
warm spring in, at

Yunogawa, 89
near Shiwokubi, 89
Claystone porphyry on

Ousubetz creek, 101
Cleavage, rectangular, in
loam of terrace deposit, 40
Climate of Mongolia in
winter, 70
1^ Yunnan, 66
Co^T table of all known
localities in China, 56,
57, 68
near Kwei, 7
near Nagasaki, 107
near Pangkwang, 62
near the " Palisade," 64
of Chingshui mines,
analyses of, 17, 124
of Fushun mine, 15
of the Futau mine,

analyses of, 15, 123
of Hsingshun mine, de-
scription and assay
of, 15
of Tehyih mine, analy-
ses of, 19, 124
on Kaiyanobetz creek,

97
price of, at the Tashhi-

tang mine, 20, 124
production of, in a mine

at Chingshui, 17
and anthracites, analy-
ses of, 16, 16, 17, 19,
123, 124, 125
at Chaitang, 11-16', 56
at Fuhutang, 52
at Lingchi, 11
at Maanshan, 11
at Muntakau, 11, 18
at Piyfiusz, 11
at various points on

Yesso, 106
basins of Pingyang (F),
64
of Tsechau (F), 64
of Kiang (C), 64
of Honan (F), 64
of Ju (C),64
of Yihte (H), 64
of Liautung, 64
ofYungping(P),64
of Peking, 64
of Kwangping (F),
64

INDEX.

131

Coal basins of Pingting
(C),64
of Taiyuen (F), 64
of Fanchau(F),64
of Hoh (C), 64
of Ninghia (F) ami
Lanchau (P), 63
in porphyry at

Chingshui, 14
of Wangping, Fang-
shan, Pingting,10
in folds of lime-
stone, 10
Coal-bearing rooks, fold-
ing of, 42
of China assumed
to be everywhere
of the same age,
62
Coal, bituminous, in China,
119
at Chaitang, 56
at Chingshui, 17,
56
brown, near Kalgan, 25
cost of, at Futau mine,
15
Coal district of Muntakau,
18
of Chaitang, de-
scription of, 14
of Fangshan, 19
field of Kwei, 6
floras of Australia and

India, 119
in China, localities of,

56, 57, 58
in Kiangsi, Chehkiang,

Nganhwui, 65
in the Kingan moun-

taiiis, 68
Mesozoic, in China, 119
Coal-measures, 63, 68
indioatioLs of, along the

coast, 65
of Kiangsi, 65
in Kiangsi, Hunan, etc.,

65
most important fold oL
the, 64 ^

Chinese, 4, 5, 62
resting on limestone, 22
limestone floor of, in
Chihli, 10
Coal mines near Nanking, 8
of Chaitang, 14
of Chingshui, 17
Coal-rocks of Sz'chuen, 6
with Kquiseta near Iwa-
nai, 105
Coals, tertiary brown, 62
said to exist near Esan,

89
seams of Eastern Yesso,

85
series of Kaiyanobetz,
97
table of, near Pe-
king, 11
strata of China, a'ge of,

120
Triassio, Cretaceous,
and Tertiary, of Ame-
rica, 119
Coast axis of elevation, 65
Cocconeis, 127
Coke made at the Hsing-
sliuu mine, 15

Columnar lava bed near
Setanai, 99
lava on mount Raiden,

98
porphyry, 84
structure in mud-
stream produced by
sulphur crystals, 87
structure of Kakumi
porphyry, 85
Communication between
the upper waters of the
Han river and Kialing
river, 3, 66
Comangadake, subaerial

deposits around, 106
Confucius records a de-
luge, 44
Conglomerate-breccia at

Oouta, 100, 104
Conglomerate at Oyasu,
89
at Sankiangkan, 7
green quartzose, 12
greenstone - porphyry,
36
near Kiming, 34
of lehang, 7
of southern Yesso, 104
of the steppe deposit, 73
porphyry, 11
quartzose, 11
sandstone, in Wuishan,

52
tufa-, near Sutzu, 98
volcanic, of Yesso, 105
volcanic tufa-, 105
Conifers, fossil, from New

Mexico, 120
Coniopteris Murrayana,

123
Contact phenomena be-
tween lava and tufa-con-
glomerate, 100
Copper, 110, 111, 112, 113,

114, 115, 116, 117
Copper pyrites in lead
veins, 80
in veins east of

Hakodade, 89
in Yurup veins, 102
vein at Saidoma, 89
vein at Kakumi, 85
Corals in terrace-clay of

Kunnui, 91
Corea, 2, 65, 116
Cornulites epithonia, 54
Coscinodiscus, 127
Cost of coal at Futau mine,

15
Crania obsoleta, 54
Crater of Komangadake, 82,

83
Crateriform hill in valley

of Sitto, 27
Grater ? near Hiratanai,

102
Creswellla, 127
Cretaceous coal, 119

strata, apparent ab-
sence of, in China, 62

Crystalline metamorphic
rocks northwest
of Peking, 35
schists near Chau-
clmen, 34

cuboides, Terebratula, 55

Cyclotella, 127
Cyrtia Muichisouisna, 54

Dana, Prof. J. D., 69
Davidson, T., on fossils

from China, 54
Decrease in volume of

lakes, 41 1

Deep gorges of the Upper

Yangtse, 4
Deguignes, 44
Delessite in amygdaloid

at Oouta, 100
Delta-deposit in Chihli,

10
Delta, facilities for calcu-
lating the rate of growth
of, 49
Delta-plain, 8, 10, 63

N. E., S. W. trend of, 1
extent of, 46
generally below level of

Hwang Ho, 46
rapid increase of, 49
rate of growth of, at
Putai, 49
at Hienshuikau, 50
yearly growth of, at
Shukwang, 50
Deluges, Chinese tradi-
tions of, 44
dentata, Peoopteris, 122
deuticulata, Peoopteris,
122
Sphenopteris, 122
Deposit, terrace, descrip-
tion of, -39
Depression between Bar-
rier range and pla-
teau, 25
in surface of the desert,
-- 73
Devonian fossils from
China, 54
limestone, 62

elevated by the

Barrier range, 63

on the Yangtse, 4

upper, fossils from Sz'-

chuen, 55

DiatomaceEB, 88, 125,126,

127, 12«
dichotoma, Sphenopteris,

122
Dictyocha, 127
Diorite in southern Mon-
golia, 70
in Tomari gravel, 99
near Yokohama, 107
of western Yesso, 104
on the Yangtse, 4
disjunctus, Productus, 54
Dislocation along south-
ern edge of plateau,
39, 42
great, cause of differ-
ence in level of higher
and lower plateau, 31
Distribution of lake ter-
race deposit in northern
China, 39
Disturbances previous to
Cevonian limestone, 41

Dolomltic limestone in
the Wuishan, 63

Douy, analysis of coal from

125

"Dragon's teeth," "dra-
gon's scales," "dragon's
bones," 62
Drainage of Chinese mines,

17
Du Halde, 43
D-wellings excavated in
terrace deposit,
40
in the terrace de-
posit at Siwan,
33
in the terrace loam
in land of the
Ortons, 43
Dykes of the Yellow river,
47
in walls of Komanga-
dake crater, 83
of trachytic porphyry,

38
of syenitic granite near

Siwan, 33
in tufa - conglomerate

near Odaszu, 93
in tufa - conglomerate

on Iwanai bay, 97
of columnar lava on the
Eaiden mountain, 98
of porphyritic rock in
quartz schist at Kudo,
101

Earthquake and destruc-
tion of cone of Komanga-
dake, 82
Earthquakes in Siberia

and northern China, 76
Eastern America, outline
of, determined by
> Appalachian revolu-
tion, 68
Asia, great geoclinal
trough traceable
through, 64
main line of eleva-
tion in, 2
N.E.,S.W. system
of mountains in,
67
prevalence of N. E.
S. W. direction
in, 62
Echinoderm, spines of fos-
sil, in tufa-conglomerate,
90, 106
Edkins, Rev. Mr., 49, 56,

57
Edomo, Cape, 93
Edwards, Mr. A. M., 88, 93
examination of infuso-
rial earths by A. M.,
126
Eifel, the, 54
Elevation, main line of, in

Eastern Asia, 2
Ellis, Mr., 52
Emerald - green mineral!

on Iwaounobori, 96
Emmons, Prof., 119, 121
Emtnonsii, Podozamites,

120, 121
Enosima, sandstone of, 108
epithonia, Cornulites, 54
Equisetites, 120
Equisetacese, fossil, 97
Erosion of the plateau,"42
in the steppe deposit, 77

132

INDEX.

Erosion of terrace deposit,

40
Eruptive rock iu Nankau
pass, 21
rocks of Yesso, 104
Esan, coal near, 89
crater, 106
sulphur works on, 87
volcano, 86, 94, 96, 105
wall rooks of crater of,
86
EUrite near Chauohuen, 34
ki. W. range of mountains
between Yellow river
and Yangtse river, 3
range of mountains
along northern boun-
dary of Sz'chuen, 3
system of trends, 3
mountain system in
southern China, 66
Excursion to west coast of

Yesso, 90
Extent of ancient lakes, 44

falcatus, Pecopteris, 120,
Fan river, 56, 67

lime works on, 63
Fanchang (H), 57, 110
Fanchau (F), 56, 109, 116
Fang (H), 57
Fang mountain, 57
Faugshan (H), 56
cave of, 12
coal district, 19
analyses of anthracites
from, 124, 125
Fangyiichiyau, 49, 50
Fani (H), 58
Fansliui (H), 58
Fan ventilators in • coal

mine, 19
Fault, great, line, at edge
of plateau, 31, 39
near Hiangshui
(pu), 22
Fehlng (H), 114
Fehshan (H), 56
Feitsul, 117, 118
Felspar of the Eakumi
porphyry, 84
of syenitic granite at

Nichinbe, 100
crystals in pumice of

Eomangadake, 83
in trachytic rook of
Hakodade, 79
Felsitic porphyry, 18

trachytic rook re-
sembling, 100

Fenshuiling, 114
Ferques, 54
Fihklashui river, 60
Finland, lakes of, 69
Fire wells of Sz'chuen, 54
First excursion on Yesso, 80
Fissures of dislocation, 7i3
Flies in the forests of Yesso,

93
Flint, 118
Forest trees of Yesso, 93,

94
Formations about the Te

Hai, 30
Formation of sulphur
veins on Iwaoano-
bori, 96

Formation of iron ore from

sea-washed magnetic

sand, 88

of sulphur and alum in

the debris of Esan, 86

Former sea of northern

Asia, 77
Formosa, Japan, and Ku-
riles, N. E., S. W. trend of
line connecting, 1
Forms of trach. porph.

hills, 24
Fortune, Robert, 52, 65
Fossil brachiopods, 62
remains In terrace de-
posit, 34
plants from China, 119
on Kaiyanobetz

creek, 97
from New Mexico,

120
from Virginia, 120
from Sonora, 120
Fossils, poverty of lime-
stone in, 6
used as medicines in

China, 13, 62
from China, 54
in China, 56, 57, 58
France, 54

Fresh--water shells in ter-
race deposit near the TS
Hai, 30
Fu (C), 110, 117
Fuchau (V), 60, 112, 114
Fuchuen (H), 116
Fuh (C), 60

Fuhklen province, 58, 60,
112, 115, 118
and Chehkiang, 52
mountain, axis in, 65
Puhtslng (H), 112 J,
Fukuh (H), 117
Fung (H), 117
Fungching, swampy plain
of, 31
near the great fault, 42
Funghwa (H), 115
Funghwang (T), 115
Fungpeh (T), crevasse of

Yellow river at, 49
Fungshan (H), 60
Fungsiang gorge, 5
Fungsin (H), 58, 60, 111
Pungtsi (H), 59
Fungtsiang (F), 56, 110

caverns, 63
Fungtsung (H), 114
Fnngtu (H), 111
Fungyang (F), 57
Funing (P), 58, 112

(H), 56, 113
Fushun (H), 59
coal mine, 15
Fuss and v. Bunge, baro-
metrical measurements
of, 70, 75
Futau mine, 14, 123

analysis of coal
from, 123
Futoro, rooks near, 100
relation between lavas
and tufa-conglomer-
ate at, 100
volcanic rocks on gran-
ite near, 100
Futu mountain, 117
Fuziyama volcano, 96

Gabbro near Yokohama,

107
Galena in Yurup veins, 102
in copper vein at Sai-

doma, 89
in lead veins, 80
Gan river, 68
Gametic gneiss and granu-

lite near TS Hai, 30, 35
Garnets in granulite, 36

in gneiss, 36
Gashun, 72

loam deposit at, 77
Gases of the Solfatara, ac-
tion of, on rock, 96
Gaultheria on Iwaouno-

bori, 96
General geology of China,
51
outlines of eastern
Asia, 1
Geoclinal valley of west-
ern Asia and eastern
Europe, 68
valleys of northern
hemisphere, 68
of Europe and the
Atlantic, 69
valley, the skeleton of
great plateau, 75
Geographical works, na-
tive Chinese, 109
Geological observations
in the basin of the
Yangtse, 4
itineraries in Yesso, 79
Geology, general, of China,
51
of Yesso, rgsumg of, 104
of route from the Great
Wall to Siberia, 70
Gephyrla, 127
Gerbillon, 43
germinans, Laccopteris, 121
Glaciers iu Nanling moun-
tains, 66
Glassy felspar in lava at

Futoro, 100
Glossopteris, 119
Gneiss, 72

gametic, 36

and granite near Kir

Noor, 29
with garnets near Te

Hai, 30
near Maanmiau, 31
and hornblende schist

near Hwaingan, 33
in the Eingan moun-
tains, 68
chloritic, 35

and chloritic schist
near Siwan, 34
in Barrier range, 32
at Yingmaohuen, 36
and granulite series of
metamorphlo rocks
41
and granulite near T6

Hai, 35
under limestone near
Hwaingan, 35
Gobi, former sea of, 76
depression, submerg-
ence of, 76
geoclinal valleyof the,68
limestone under micro-
scope, 126

Gobi, sandstone under
microscope, 127
desert, 44, 72, 74
deposits in, 108
Gold, 109, 110, 111, 117
table of, localities in

China, 60, 61
in Shantung, 63
in central China, 66
deposits of Kunnui re
worked in form
times, 91
probable existence
of, on the Tomar-
creek, 99
Gold washings in Kwei-
chau, 63
indicative of neighi
borhood of meta-
morphic rocks,62
of Kunnui, 91
method of, at Kun-
nui, 92
Gorge, Ichang, 5
the Lucan, 6
Fungsiang, 5
of Lungmun on the

Hwang Ho, 63
in trachytic porphyry,

33
of the Hwang Ho in

Barrier range, 63
in limestone, 22
traversing the Barrier

range, 32
connecting the Te Hai
and Sankang valleys,
31
connecting the Kir
Noor valley and the
Yellow river valley,
29
Gorges of Yellow river
through limestone
mountains, 44
forming transversal
reaches of the
Yangtse valley, 3
of the Yangtse, great
depth of water in
the, 5
of the Yangtse, differ-
ence between high
and low water-mark
in, 5
of Lungmun, Hukau,
and Sanmun, 45
Gouchouc, fossil brachio-
pods from, 55
Grammatophora, 127
Granite, 63
axis, 2

red and white, 72
in Nankau pass, 34
of coast range, 53
in Kunnui gravel, 91
on the Gobi, 73
in the Liushan, 52
in mountains west of

Yurup mines, 102
in southern Mongolia,

70
under the plateau, 27
near Futoro, 100
on the Yangtsi, 4
at the head of the Miu
river, and on Chusan
islauds, 65

«.

INDEX.

133

Granite, near Canton, 53
of Kingteh, 65
iu Great Kingan moun-

• tains, 68
and mica-schist, 74
and gneiss near Kir

Noor, 29
and olayslate in the

Wuishan, 52
and limestone in the
Coast range, 65
at the Meiling pass,
65
detritus of the Kir Noor

28
green, near Yenohau (F)

52
cellular, in Nankau

pass, 21
intrusive, in the coal

measures, 21
axial, in Nankau pass,

21
blocks of, near Kunnui,

91
peaks of Fuhkien, 53
pavements in Cheh-

kiang, 52
mass, height of, in

Chihli, 10
syenitio, near Siwan, 33
chloritio, 27, 75

on the Ousubetz
creek, 101
Granitic ridges in Mon-
golia, 70
and schistoid rocks
under plateau, 27
Granitite in Nankau pass,
34
in bed of Yang Ho, 35
Granito - metamorphic

formations, 62
Granulite of Oouta, 100
age of, 101
of Yesso, relative age

of, 104
and gneiss near T6 Hai,

85
gametic, near the T6
Hai, 30
Graphite in limestone on

the Gobi, 74
Gravel of quartziferous
porphyry, 25
similar to the Kunnui
deposit, 98
Graywacke near Canton,

53
Great Kingan mountains,
67
Wall of China, 23, 32,
43, 46, 67, 75, 77
view from, at Ha-
noor, 25
Green qnartzose conglom-
erate, 12
Greenstone of southern
Yesso, 89
of lohinowatari, 105
at Kakumi, 85
metamorphic, 75
of western Yesso, rela-
tive age of, 104
veins in, at Ynrup, 103
of Nichinbe, age of, 101
at Yurup, veins in, 102

Greenstone of Tchinown-
tari, lead veins in, 80
dykes in Nankau pass,
21
in Kakumi por-
phyry near Oya-
su, 89
in clay-slates at

Oyasu, 89
in hills of Senji, 72
in limestone, 71
Greenstone - porphyry
conglomerate, 36
near Kiming, 34, 36
tufa of, 22

iu southern Mongolia,
70
Gullies in terrace deposit,

40«
Gulf of Peohele, 49

limestone islands

at mouth of, 63
growth of delta on
southern shore
of, 50
of Tonquin, 66
Gunpo'wder, introduction
of, into Japanese mining,
103
Gurban Noor, undrained
lakes and marshes of, 27
Gutbiera, 120
Guyerdet, M., on fossils

from Gouohouc, 55
Guyot, Prof. A., 69
Gypsum, 116, 117

beds near lake Bilika-
Noor, 71

Hai mountain, 109
Haichi mountain, 114
Hcudingera, 120
Hainan island, 2, 53, 65
Haishui, 43
Haiyen (H), 112, 115
Hakodade, bay of, 89
mesa between, and Shi-

wokubi, 89
neck of, 80
peak, rock of, 106
return to, 89
topography of, 79
Hamajitne, tufa-conglome-
rate near, 98
Hanchung (F), 57, 60, 110,

113, 117
Han dynasty, mouth of Yel-
low river, at Changwu
under, 50
Han river, 60, 63, 66
Hanburii, Ehynchonella,

54

Hangohau (F), 57, 58, 61,

111, 115, 117

(Hunan), analysis of

coal from, 125
bay, 46
Hangshan (H), 58
Hanhaishi, 72
Hankau, 7, 65
hills of, 7
Canton to, 52
Hanoortai, Mongol village

of, 25, 26
Ha Noor on line of the
Great fault, 42
thickness of volcanic
formation near, 38

Hanying (T), 60
Heishan (H), 57
Height of granite mass iu
Chihli, 10
of Barrier range, 32
HI mountain, 116
Hiamaling porphyries, 41
Hianghang (H), 112
Hianglu mountain, 115
Hiangning (H), 109
Hiangpau mountain, 115
Hiauni (H), 109
Hingi(P), 115, 117
Hiangshui (pu), 22
Hienshuikau, rate of
growth of delta at, 50
Higher plateau, southern

limit of, 31
Hills of quartzif. porphyry

gravel near Tutinza, 25
Himalaya, 66
Hin (C), 56, 59
Hinghwa (F), 58
coal field of, 65
Hingkwoh (C), 111, 114
Hingnan (F), 117
Hingngan (F), 113
Hingning (H), 116
Hinngan (F), 60
Hingyuen (H), 52
Hiratanai, lava flow over

tufa-conglomerate, 102
Ho (C), 57, 112, 116
Hochi (C), 116
Hoh (C), 56, 59, 60, 111
Hokau, 52
Hokinhoshan, 60
Honan (F), 57, 110, 114
Honan, Prov., 57, 66, 110,

114, 117
Hongkong, 65
Horns of deer iu terrace

deposit at Siwan, 34
Hornblende, basaltic, 38
of syenitio granite at

Nichinbe, 100
in lava of Futoro, 100
in trachytic rocks of

Totohoke, 86
in trachytic rocks of

Hakodade, 79
felspar rook, 105
Hornblendic and chloritic
rocks east of Kalgan,
36
porphyry, 18
schist on the Yangtse, 4
series, rooks of, in the
Barrier range, 32, 35,
36
series of metamorphic
rocks, 41
Hornstone beds at Wo-
satzube, 85
at Kudo, 101
near coal seams of East-
ern Yesso, 85
Horteryndaban, 74
Hoshan (fire mountains),

55
Hoyau near Tatung (F),

65
Hoyuen (H), 61,116
Hoyurbaishin, village of,
28
to the T6 Hai, 29
Hoyur Noor, dry bed of
lake of, 28

Hoyurtoloho Gol, valley

of, 27
Hsingshun coal mine, 15
Hue, Abbe, 57

description of deserts
of the Ortous, 43
Huohau (F), 57, 115

coal field of, 65
H'ftkau, gorge of, 45
Humboldt, Baron, 54, 66,

76
Hunan province, 52, 58, 61,
63,111,115, 117
analyses of anthracites

from, 124, 125
coal basins of, 64
synclinal axis in, 65
Hung mountain, 113
Hungary, trachytic rocks

of, 86
Hungling mountain, 110
Hunglung, 48
Hungtonientsa, 112
Hungtung (H), 56
Hungya (H), 114
Hupeh province, 57, 60, 66,
111, 114, 117, 121
analysis of coal from,
124
Hwai river, 46, 63, 65
Hwaiking (F), 46, 48
Hwaingan (P) 110
Hwaingan (H), 32
valley of, 33
beds, 33, 36

beds deposited near the
shore, 41
Hwaitsih (H), 58, 61
Hwaitsung (H), 110
Hwang (C), 61
Hwangan (H), 60
Hwangchau (F), 60, 111
built on ferruginous
sandstone, 7
Hi^ang Hai (or Yellow

Sea), 49
Hvirang Ho, 57, 63

control of a constant

source of care, 49
political importance of,

49
present course of, 49
recent change in the

lower course of, 49
the source of ancient
lake deposit, 43
Hwangkang (H), 60
Hwangkingtseh, 60
Hivangko mountain, 111,

114
Hwanglung (C), 56, 60
Hwangmei (H), 111
Hwangtsie mountain, 116
Hwanyuen (C), 59
Hwating (H), 110, 113
Hweilai (H), 22
Hwui (H), 110, 113
Hwuichau (F), 61, 114,
116
sandstone and slate
near, 52
Hwuili (G), 59, 111, 114
Hvruilu inouiilain. 111
Hwuining (H), 117
Hydrography of Yunnan,

66
Hymenophyllites, 120
teuellus, 122

134

INDEX.

bymenophylloldes,

Sphenopteria, 122
Hypersthenite in the Bar-
rier range, 32.

Ichau(F), 57, 60, 110,113,

117
lohang (F), 57, 117

gorge, 5 **

rooks near city of, 7
Ichibu, value of, 81
Ichiuo-watari, lead mines
of, 80, 103
series of rocks, 105
argillites at, 80
greenstone of, 80
Calamite at, 80
Ikiun (H), 110
Imbert, 67, 64

on the salt wells of
Sz'chuen, 53
Imperial canal, 46

summit level of, 48
Indian coal-flora, 119
Ineh (Ts), 112
Infusorial earths, 126

beds of Japan, Vir-
ginia and California,
resemblance of, 88
earth, raised bed of
near Nitanai, 88
Inkstone, 117
Irawaddi river, 66
Irkutsk, 75
Iro Gol river, 75
Iron, localities of in Chihli
109
in Shansi, 109
j in Shensi, 110

in Kansuh, 110
in Shantung, 110
in Kiangsuh, 110
in Nganhwui, 110
in Honan, 110
in Hupeh, 111
in Sz'chuen, 111
in Kiangsi, 111
in Hunan, 111
in Kweichau, 111
in Chehkiang, 112
in Fnhkien, 112
in Kwangtung, 112
in Yunnan, 112
ore with coal and lime-
stone in Sz'chuen, 6
sulphate of, 116, 117,

118
works, 112

oxider deposited from
springs in Iwaoun-
bori, 96
pyrites in the Kakumi

porphyry, 84
pyrites, 117

vein near Saidoma,

89
in Yurup vein, 102
in lead veins, 80
Ishan (H), 116
iBhiU (H), 113
Islands, hills near Yedo
recently, 108
in ancient lakes of
North China, 40
Isolated lakes of Southern

Mongolia, 26
Isolation of lakes, cause
of in Mongolia, 41

Isoya, beds of sandstone
and volcanic ashes near,
93
to Sutza, 98
dykes of rook at, 100
Isthmia, 127
Itu, red sandstone of, 7
Iwanal, 94, 97

coal rocks of, 105
analysis of coal from,

125
to Isoya, 98
Iwaou (sulphur), 94
I-waounobori, 98

volcano, excursion to,

94
summit of, 95
solfatara action on, 95
sulphur works on, 97

Jade, 117, 118
Jadeite (feitsui), 117,118
Japan sea, 67, 104, 105
Formosa and Kuriles,
N. E., S. W. trend of
line connecting, 1
Japanese taste for the bi-
zarre in nature, 62
mining, 80
Jasper in Tomari gravel,
99
with copper at Kunnui,

91
on the Gobi desert, 73
Jesuit map of China, accu-
racy of, 62
Jinshan (H), 59
Jin Tsung, 48
Jauohau (F), 60, 114
Ju (C), 57, 110, 114
Juning (F), 46
Jurassic strata, apparent

absence of in China, 62
Juyuen (H), 58
Jehol, 10, 57, 68

Kabasima, granite intru-
sive on, 107
Kai (H), 59
Kaifung (F), 47, 110
Kaikien (H), 61
Kaiping (H), 57
Kaiyanobetz coal series,

97
Kakumi porphyry, 84

out by greenstone,

89
on the Raiden

mountain, 94
product of weather-
ing of, 85
warm spring of, 85
porphyry among ejecta

of Esan, 86
copper mine of, 84
Kalgan (Changkiakau), 56,
70, 72, 74
to Siwan and Sinpaun-

gan, 33
road froro to Urtai, 25
metamorphic region

east of, 36
trachytio porphyry, 23,
74
description of, 37
Kameta, terrace deposit at,
80

Kamsohatka, 106

N. E., S. W. trend of, 1
granite axis of, 65

Kan, value of, 81

Kan river, coal measures
on, 65
sandstone on, 52

Kanchau (P), 52, 60, 111,
114

Kanghi, map of the Em-
peror, 66

Kanku, 116

Kansuh province, 43, 57,
60, 110, 113, 117
Barrier range in, 63

Kantientsuhtung, 117

Kaolin, of Kingteh, 65

Kara sea, 69

Kara Gol river, 75 *

Karaoussu, communica-
tion between, and valley
of Kir Noor, 29

Kaufung, 57

Kaufungkung, 116

Kauhyen mountain, 58

Kauming (H), 116

Kauyin mountain, 116

Kauyuen (H) 110

Kehyu mountain, 60, 115

Kentei mountains, 74

Keyserling, 55

Ki mountain, 113

Kia (C), 59, 117

Kiachta, Urga to, 75

Kiahing (F) 112, 115

Kiai (C), 56, 59, 60, 109,
113, 117

Kialung river, 66

Kiang (H) 109

Kiang mountain, 109, 113

Kiang (C), 56, 109, 113, 116

Kiangsi province, 58, 60,
111, 114, 117
indications of limestone
in, 66

Kiangsuh province, 46, 57,
110, 113, 114
synclinal axis in, 65

Kianghia (H), 111, 114

Kiangnan (H), 69

Klangning (F) (Nanking),
57, 110, 114

Kiangpu (H), 57

Kiangshan (H), 58

Kiating (F), salt deposits
of, 57, 69, 64, 111, 114

Kiaying (C), 116

Kiohau, 47

Kien (C), 59, 60, 114

Kienohang (F), 114

Kienchi (H), 60

Kienngan (H), 112, 115

Kienning (F), 112, 115

Kientang (H), 116

Kiente (H), 112, 115

Kienwei (H), 67

Kienyang (H), 66, 115

Kih (C), lime of, 56, 63,
109

Kihngan (F), 52

Kikiang (H), 114

Klming, 45, 56
mountain^ 22
terrace deposit near, 34

Kingchau (F), 57, 60

Kiiigcblngshi river, 117

Kingtang (H), 114

Kingyang (F), 110, 117

Kin (H), 57

Kingan mountains, coal in,
68
rocks of the, 68
made up of parallel
ridges, 68
Kiugkung and Chwanchio,

battle between, 44
Kingteli, granite and Eao-

lin of, 65
Kingtsewan, sandstone

quarries near, 62
Kingtingpu, 56
Kingtung (T), 59
Kingyuen (P), 58, 116
iu Kwangsi, marble
mountains of, 53
Kinhwa (F), 58
Kinhwa (H), 58
Kinki (H), 114
Kinkung, 61
Kinngohshan, 61
Klnsha Kiang, 65, 61, 118
Kinshan, 60
Kinsha (Ts), 116
Kintsung, 61
Kintsumi mountain, 58
Kintang (H), 57
Kiuhtsing (F), 112, 116
Kiuhyu (H), 109, 113
Kiukiang (F), 7, 52, 65
Kiusiu, 108

neighborhood of Naga-
saki on, 107
Kir Noor, 76, 126
valley of, 28
disappearance of waters

of, 28, 29
character of plain of, 29
old water-level lines

around, 29
earth frotn, under mi-
croscope, 127
road to, from Chagan-
oussu, 28
Kiungchau (F), 112, 116,

118
Kiuyung (H), 114
Kiyungk'wan, marble arch

of, 12
Klaproth, 70

on Min mountains,, 66
comparing dates of He-
brew, Brahmin, and
Chinese deluges, 44
map of Central Asia by,
43 ^'

Kobi, magnetic iron sand
at, 88
European iron furnace
at, 88
Kohso-wa, 114
Komangadake (Sawara-
dake) volcano, £2
crater of, 82
pumice eruption of, 82
destruction of cone of,

82
gases from, 83
Komung mountain, il4
de Koninck, on fossils

from China, 54, 55
Koyeh mountain, 113
Krafto (Sagaliu),79
Krapotkin, Prince, 68
Kii (C), 57, 60, 110, 113
Kii (H), 111
Kii mountain, 116

INDEX.

135

Kiichau (F), 58,115,117
coal field of, 65
calcareous sandstone
near, 52
Kudo, silicious schist of,
104
metamorphio rocks
near, 101
Kumalshi, pumic-tufa at,

102
Kung (C), 59, 114
Kung (H), 57, 110
Kung mountain, 56, 110,

111
Kungchang (F), 67, 60,

110, 113, 117
Kungchau (F), 111
Kungching (H)', 58
Kunnui, 99

deposition of auriferous

gravel of, 106
auriferous gravel of, 105
gold-washings at, 91
terraces near, 90
amygdaloid at, 100
Kur river, 68
Kuren (Urga), 75
Kurile islands, axis of, 106
ashes of Komangadake

carried to, 82
Japan and Formosa, N.
E., S. W. trend of
line connecting, 1
Kusih mountain, 116
Eusung mountain. 111, 114
Kwaihoohuen river, 60
Kwang (C), 46
Kwangchau (P), 115,118
Kwangling (H), 50

"fire mountain" near,
55
Kwangnlng (H), 61
Kwangping (F), 46, 56,

109
K-wangsi province, 58, 61,
65, 66, 112, 116, 118
marbles of, 53
Kwangsi (C), 116
Kwangsin (F), 52, 58, 111,
114, 117
coal field of, 65
K-wangyin, sacred cavern

of, 52
KTivangtung province, 58,

61, 112, 115, 116, 118
Kwangyuen (H), 60, 111
Kwantung (H), 59
K'wantung (pu), quarry of

lava at, 32
Kwei (C), 57
Kwei (H), 61, 116
Kwei coal field, 6, 64, 121
basin, plants from, 119
analysis of coal from,
124
Kweichau province, 58, 61,

63, 66, 111, 115, 117
Kweichau(F), 59, 60,111,

114, 117
Kweichi (H), 111
Kweilin (F), 58, 66, 116
Kweiyang (F), 115
Kweiyang (C), 58, 111,

115
Kwenlun mountains,

ranges branching off
from, 2
represented in China, 66

Kwungming (H), 112, 116

Labor and material, cost
of, at Yurup mines,
103
cost of, on Yesso, 81
Laccopteris, 120
germinans, 121
Laicha Ho, analysis of an-
thracite from, 124
Laichau (F), 46
Laiping (H), 61
Laiyang (H), 58

limestone quarries near,
52
Laiyung mountain, 114
Laiwu (H), 110, 113
Lake Baikal, 75

earthquakes at, 76
Lake Lo, 48
Yungtse, 47
basins of northern
China, origin of, 42
loam deposit of north-
ern China, origin of,
42
loam of Siwan under

microscope, 126
in a crateriform valley,
near Iwanai, 94
Lake-terrace deposits, 23
deposit, description of
39
Lakeb of northern China,
islands in ancient, 40
isolated, 41
extent of ancient, 44
diminution in volume

of, 41
isolated, in southern

Mongolia, 26
origin of the ancient, of

northern China, 42
time of disappearance
of, 45
Lamasery near Yingma-
chuen, 30
of Boroseiji, 26
of Churin chelu, 74
Lamotsang, 115
lanceolata, Zamia, 121
lauceolatus, Fodozamites,
120, 121
Zamites, 121
Lanchau (F), coal-basin of

57, 60, 63
Langsien cave, 58
Langtsung (H), 59
Lanki (H), 58
Lanklung (H), 59
Lanshan (H), 60, 113
Lantien (H), 117
mountain, 117
Lantienta, 61
Lantsan river, 61, 66
Lapis-lazuli, 117
Latsz, mountain, 57
Lauhukau, 58
Lavas of Mongolia, 42
Lava of the plateau, 75
resting on granitic and
metamorphic rocks,
75
fragments of, 72
of plateau, character of,
at Kwantung (pu), 32
Lava-quarry at Kwantung
(pu), 32 I

Lava-Quarry, stream in
valley of Si Ho, 27
dykes on Yesso, 106
flows on Yesso, 106
on the Raiden
mountain, 94
bed at cape Shiraita, 99
amorphous, at Hira-

tanai, 102
of Setanai, description
of, 99
Lead, 110, 111, 113, 114,
115,116
mines of Ichinowatari,
80
production of, and
cost of working,
81
smelting process at

Ichinowatari, 81
veins, minerals of, at

Ichinowatari, 80
mines of Yurup, 102
amount and cost of pro-
duction at Yurup, 103
Leang mountain, 113
Leangjjien mountain, 113
Leangkung mountain, 117
Lena river, 67, 76
Letter from A. M. Edwards
^ on infusorial earths, 126
Liangchau.(F), 57
Liangshan (H), 117
Liangtang (H), 113
Liau river, 57, 64

N. E., S. W. trend
in lower course
of, 1
Llautung, 57, 64

promontory, N.E.,S.W.
trend of, 2
Liayang (H), 113
Liaying (H), 117
Li, Chinese, 50

mountain, 60, 117, 118
(C), 111
Lien (C), 112
Lienchau (P), 58, 115
Lieutungping, 57
Likiang (P), 59, 61, 118
Lime, 62

Limekilns near Peking, 12
Limestone, 13, 44, 6j, 65
in China, localities of,

56, 57, 58
near Nagasaki, 107
of Nankau pass, 21
silicious, 22
Devonian, 62
in the coal-measures, 21
islands in gulf of Pe-

chele, 63
fragments of, in green-
stone-porphyry con-
glomerate, 37
oaves in, 12
silicious, of Kiming, 36
at Siuenhwa (F),
12
fragments in porphyry

conglomerate, 13
of Chihii, 10
anticlinal ridges of, on

the Yangtse, 63
description and mode
of occurrence of, in
Chihii, 12

Limestone and granite in
the coast range, 68
near Chauchuen, 34
broken through by por-
phyry, 13
poverty of, in fossils, 6
in amygdaloid, 22
on Moiling pass, 52
near Yingting (H), 52
in Liautung, 64
on the North river, 52
near Laiyang (H), 52
near Yenchau (P), 52
silicious, of Hwaingan

beds, 36
in Tomari gravel, 99
of the Gobi under mi-
croscope, 126
indications of, in Min

mountains, 66
resting on gneiss near

Hwaingan, 35
varieties of, in Senji

hills, 72
in Mingan hills, 71
with graphite, 74
great thickness of, '5
overlying metamojphic

schists, 5
near lake Bilika Noor,

71
on the Yangtse, 4
ridges below Hwang-

chau (P), 7
Devonian, flanking the

granite axis, 5
quarried at Nanking, 8,

51
chert in , 6

on the Yangtse, char-
acter of, 5
breccia near Shauchan,
52
Lindley, 121, 123
linearis, Fterozamites, 120
Ling (H), 56
Ungan (P), 112, 116
Lingcbi, coal at, 11
Lingfung (H), 56
Lingling (H), 58
Lingpau (H), 114
Lingshi (H), 56
Lingtse (H), 60, 110, 114
Lingtung (H), 117
Linkiang (F), 58, 114
Linkiu (H), 56
Linkii (H), 60,110, 113
Liping (P), 111
Lipu (H), 58
Lishui (H), 114
List of minerals of China,

109
Lithology of region north-
west of Peking, 34
Litlen, 116

Liuchau (P), 61, 112, 116
Liulu mountain, 56
Liulungtsa, 112
Liushan, rocks of, 52
Liutung (H), 60
Liuyang (H), 58
Liyang (H), 110
Loam of terrace deposit,
erosion of, 40
terrace, in valley of the

Si Ho, 28
origin of the lake, of
northern China, 42

136

INDEX.

Iioam, calcareous, of an-
cient lake (terrace)
deposit, 40
deposits ou the plateau,
75,77
Lockhart, Dr. W., 54
Lodestone, 109, 110, 111
Lohliang (C),112
Lohnan (H), 113
Lohngan (H), 113, 117
Loma (Ts), 116
Longan (H), 110
Longitudinal valleys in

Eastern Asia, 1
Loshan (H), 59
Loti (F), 112
Loting (C), 112
Iiotslng (H), 117
Iiotsung mountain, 110
Lotu, 57
Lower plateau, 31

Yangtse, observation
along, 7
Loyang (H), 57
Lucan gorge, 6

sandstone at the, 6
Luohau (F), 46, 57
Lu (C), 59, 60, 114
Lufung (H), 116
Luhkiang (H), 57
Luhkiuen (H), 112
Luhngan (C), 46
Luitsz (H), 116
Luki river, 115
Lulung (H), 60, 109, 113
Lunan (C), 116
Lung (C), 110
Lungan (F), 69, 109, 113,

lit)
Lungchi (H), 112
Lungchi mountain, 56
Lungkien mountain, 115
Lungmun mountains, 67

gorge, 2, 45, 63
Lungmun (H), 109
Lungmun (Ts), 115
Lungnan (B"), 114
Lungngan (F), 60, 111, 116
Lungsu mountain, 112, 115
Lungtang mountain, 111,

115
Lungtaiuen (H), 58, 60, 115
Lungtsungyen, 116
Lupan (H), 114
Lusan (H), 67
Lushi (H), 114
Lutientsang, 116

Maanmiau, 31

action of spring near,
42
Maanshan, 66
coal at, 11
Macdonaia, J. A., 14, 123
Maohing (H), 111
Maoombii, Otozamites,120
Magnesite in lead veins, 80
Magnetic iron in trachytic
rock at Hako-
dade, 79
in Kunnui gravel,

91
sand at Kobi, 88
magnifolia, Strangerites,
120

MaiUa, 44, 46
Malachite, 113

Malayan peninsula formed
by mountains of the N. S.
system, 2
Malung (C), 112
Malung (Ts), 116
Mammoth, remains of, in

Siberia, 77
Manau mountain, 118
Manchuria, 68

volcanic action in the
mountains of, 76
Manchurian rivers, ter-
races of, 108
Manganese at Kunnui, 91
carbonate of, in Yurup
veins, 102
Mang mountain, 109
Maugninchueukau, 57
Mantau, 116
Maples on Yesso, 93
Map of Qhina, 45

general sketch, of Ge-
ology of China, 63
Maps of changes in the
course of the Hwang Ho,
47
Marble in China, 6 a"

localities of limestone,

in China, 56, 67, 68
arch of Kiyungkwan, 12
ornamental, 12
mountains of Kingyuen

(F), 53
in Shihtsien (F), and
Chinyuen (F), 63
Marco Polo, 66
Marine terraces of Japa-
nese coast, 108
Marshes of the delta-plain,

47
Mats used in gold-washing

at Kunuui, 92
Matzmai, 106
Mau (C), 60, 114
Mau mountain, 67
Maumotosz', 118
Mei (C), 59, 60, 117
Mei (H), 110
Meiling pass, 65

argillaceous sand-
stone and lime-
stone on, 62
probably a low range, 3
Mergen, 68
Mesozoic plants, 119
Metamorphic argillite, 105
at Yurup, veins in,
102
argellites of Kakumi, 84
region east of Kalgan,

3, 36

rocl£S on the Yangtse, 4

of northern China,

of diii'erent ages,

41

in Central China,

66
nearSiuenhwa (F),
23

at Chifa, 63
of the Gobi desert,

67
at Mt. Oyama, 107
of southeastern
peninsula of
Yesso, 89
older, of western
Yesso, 104

Metamorphic rooks of
Kudo, 101
of Oouta, 100
schists at the Lucan
gorge, 6
of Barrier range,

25,32
under lava of pla-
teau, 27
near the Te Hai, 30
strata on Kiusiu, 107
coal-bearing rocks of
Ousubetz, 105
Method of washing gold at

Knnnui, 92
Miautsz' an aboriginal

people in the Nanling, 3
Mica of syenitio granite at

Nichinbe, 100
Micaceous schist near
Poyang lake, 65
series, schists of, on
either side of Barrier
range, 36
schist in the Liushan,
52
in the Kingan

mountains, 68
in hills of Senji, 72
on the Gobi, 74
and chloritio schists in
Kunnui gravel, 106
Microscope, examination

of earths under, 126
Mien (H), 110
Mien (C), 60,111, 114
Mienning (H), 111, 114
Milob mountain, 114
Min (C), 60, 117
Miu river, granite on, 66
Mineral Productions of

China, 109
Minerals of China, list of,
109
miscellaneous, in
Chihli, 116
in Shansi, 116
in Fuhkien, 118
in Kwangtung, 118
in Kwangsi, 118
in Yunnan, 118
in Hunan, 117
in Kweichau, 117
in Chehkiang, 117
in Shensi, 117
in Kansuh, 117
in Shantung, 117
in Honan, 117
in Hupeh, 117
in Sz'chuen, 117
in Kiangsi, 117
Mines of coal near Nan-
king, 8
in Japan and China, 80
of Yurup, 102
Ming (H), 112
Mingan hills, 70, 71

loam deposit in, 77
Mingkinrang, 116
Ming Ti (Tung Han dvn.),

48
Mining, Chinese method of,
20
method of, in Tatsau

anthracite seam, 16
at Yurup, 103
Miscellaneous minerals,
116

Mitan gorge, 66
Miyun (H), 60, 109, 113
Mochada, height of the

Amur river at, 68
Mohpeh mountain, 118
Mokwei, 112
MoUusks, recent, in ter-
race-clay of Yesso, 106
Monbetz, ammonites and

obsidian from, 106
Mongin mountain, 116
Mongolia, topography, etc.,
of southern, 70
volcanic formation of

southern, 70
earths from, under mi-
croscope, 126
winter climate of, 70
Mongolian Table-land, 67
southern edge of,

25
character of eastern

edge of, 68
character of north-
ern edge of the,
74
Monterey, infusorial earth

of, 126
Moteta, tufa-conglomerate

at cape, 99
Moyu, 115

Mud and steam vents on
Esan, 86
flows of Esan, 86
Mulberry at Kunnui, 93
Munghwa (T), 112
Mungmitosz, 118
Mungtsz (H), 116
Mungying (H), 113
Muntakau, 66

analysis of anthracite

from, 124
anthracite at, 11
anthracite district of, 18
Murray, Mr., 68
Murrayana, Coniopteris,

123
Murchison, R. I., 55
Murchisoniana, Cyrtia, 64
Murkivoching, syenite

near, 35
Mwanohing (H), 109

■"Nagasaki, neighborhood of,
107
coal near, 107
argillaceous schists and

limestone near, 107
pluto-neptunian de-
posit near, 107
Nai (creek), 90
Nambu, Prince of, 88
Nan mountain, 114
Nanohang (Fu), 68, 60,

111, 114
Nanhai (H), 115
Nanhiung (F) and Shan-
chau (P), limestone and
sandstone with coal be-
between, 52
Nankau pass, 21

rooks of, 10
mountain range of,

63
granite in, 34
Nanking, 46, 65, 110

limestone quarried at,
8, 51

INDEX.

137

Nanking, coal mines near, 8
red sandstone opposite,

8
to Canton, geology of
the route from, 61
Nanling mountains, 3, 63

branches of, 3
Nanngan (F), 52,111,114
Nanning (P), 58, 61
Nanping (H), 112, 115
Nanpu (H), 59
Nanshan mountains, 58
Nantsung (H), 114
Nanyang (F), 110, 114
Wanyang (H), 110
Nanying (C), 112
Nanying (H), 112
Narin Gol, 26
Native copper In jasper, 91
N. E., S. 'W. system of up-
heaval, 42, 67
uplift on Yesso, 105
ridges in Nprthern

China, 10
trend in S. E. coast of
China, upper Yellow
river, lake Baikal,
Kamschatka, coast of
Manchuria, 1
trend in rivers of East

Siberia, 1
trend in E. Asia, gulf
of Pechele, middle
Yangtse, delta-plain,
Liau river, Lower
Amur, gulf of Pen-
jinsk. In the shores
of sea of Ochotsk and
bay of Bengal. In
islands of Formosa,
Japan, and Kuriles, 1
trend in Stanovoi and
Yablonoi ranges, in
mountains of Trans-
Baikal, in Byrranga
mountains, 1
system of elevation, 65

Neapolitan solfatara, 86
Nehon, 54
Nekiang (H), 59
Nephrite in Tomari gravel,

99
in limestone, 99
Nesho mountain, 58
Newberry, J. S., 119
New Me^co, fossil plants

from, 120
Neyang (H), 110
Ngan (C), 116
Ngan (H), 60
NganoM (H), 112
Ngani (H), 56,59,109, 113
Nganfung (Ts), 115
Nganhiang (H), 58
Nganhwa (H), 110, 111
Ngauwhui province, 52, 57,

66, 110, 114
synclinal axis in, 65
NgankI (H), coal at, 65
Nganking (F), 110 114
Nganloh (F), 114
Nganning (C), 59
Nganshun (F), 117
Nibitzuuai, terrace deposit

at, 94
Nichinbe, greenstone of,

101 I

18 August, 1866.

Nichinbe, syenitio granite

near, 100
Nien mountain, 117
Nientau, 115
Ning (C), 117
Ninghai mountain, 112, 115
Ninghia (F), 57
coal basin of, 63
western limit of ancient
lakes, 43
Ninghwa (H), 112, 115
Ningkiang (C), 66
Ningkwei mountain, 110,

113
Ningkwoh (F), 57, 114

coal field of, 65
Nlnglau mountain, 116
Ningpo (F), 60, 115
Ningteh (H), 112
Ningtsing mountain, 115
Ningurh (H), 59
Ningyuen (F), 59, 60, 111,

114
Ningyuen (H), 110, 113,

117
Nippon, N. S. trend of

northern, 107
Nitan mountain, 115
Nitanai, bed of infusorial
earth near, 88
infusorial earth from,
under microscope,
126
Nitre, 116, 117, 118
Niyang.^H), 110
Noborl (to climb), 94
North and south system of

upheaval on Yesso, 106
North Atlantic, 69
North Carolina, fossil

plants of, 119, 120
Nort&east system of up-
heaval on Yesso, 106
North river, sandstone and

limestone on, 52
Northwest system of up-
heaval on Yesso, 106
Norway, 69
Noumln river, 68
N. S. system of mountains,
2
trend of Sagalin, 107
trend apparently con-
fined to Western
China, 2
system of elevation
affeotiug younger
strata, 107
Nuculina ? in the terrace-
clay of Kunnui, 91
N. W. uplift on Yesso, 105
system of elevation af-
fecting oldest metam
roeks, 107

Oaks on Yesso, 93

Obokodake mountain, 105

Observations in the pro-
vince of Chihli, 10

Obsidian from North Yesso,
106

obsoleta, Crania, 54

Ochotsk, sea of, 67

Odaszu bay, 93, 98, 100,
106

Oeynhausianus, Fteroza-
mites, 120

Olivine, 38

Olannoor, valley of, 71
Old water-level lines around

the Kir Noor valley, 29
Olo, 116

omphalodes, Spirorbis, 54
Ono, plain of, 80
Outline of East Asia caused
by N. E., S. W. disturb-
ance, 42
Ores of copper, silver, lead,
tin, quicksilver,
in Chihli, 113
in Sliansi, 113
in Shensi, 113
in Kansuh, 113
in Shantung, 113
in Kiangsnh, 114
in Nganhwui, 114
in Honan, 114
in Hupeh, 114
in Sz'oliuen, 114
in Kiangsl, 114
in Hunan, 115
in Kweichau, 115
in Chehkiang, 115
in Fuhkien, 115
in Kwangtung, 115
in Kwaugsi, 116
in Yunnan, 116
in Corea, 116
Origin of the ancient lakes

of Northern China, 42
orientalis, Sphenopteris,

121, 122, 123
Orkhon river, 74, 75

steppes of, 76
Oron lake, seals in, 76
Orthoceras from China, 55
Orthography of Chinese

names, 109
Ortous, terrace deposit in

the land of the, 43
Oscillations, recent, of the
surface of China, 9
in the valley of the
Yangtse, 9
Ossiferous caverns, 13, 56
Ostreae, fossil at Kunnui, 91
Otoshibetz, terrace clay

with shells near, 90
Otozamites Macombii, 120
Ouenkoto, 101
Ourang daban mountains,

2, 63
Oussu, 96
Ousubetz, 97

penal establishment of,

101
coal series near, 105
to Iwanai, 98
Oouta rooks, relative age of,
104
metamorphic rooks at,
100
Oxide of iron deposited

from springs, 96, 101
Oyama mountains near Yo-
kohama, 107
Oyasu, rocks at, 89

Pa (C), 60

Pah (H), 59

Pacific Ocean, north, 69

Pacific coast, infusorial

beds on, 126, 127, 128
Palagonite tufa near Yu-
rnp, 104
on Yesso, 105

Paleozoic, skeleton of the

plateau probably, 75
Palisade, 57

coal near, 64
Pallas, 76
Pang (H), 60
Pangkwang, coal mine

near, 52
Pangshan (H), 59
Pangshui (H), 60, 114
Pang (Ts), 115
Parallelism in Siberian
mountains, 67
line of reference for, 1
in Eitstern Asia, 1
Pass of Nankau, 21
Passes of the Meiling, 3
Patang, 55
Patung (H), 57
Pau mountain, 113, 118
Pauhung, 116
ranking (F), 58, 111, 115
Panning (F), 59, 60, 111
Faungan (C), 56
Paushan (H), 118
Paushan, 60
Pauteh (C), 44
Pauting (F), 56, 109, 113
Pautsing (H), 117
Pechele, gulf of, 49, 67
N. E., S. W. trend in
gulf of, 1
Pecopteris, 119
dentata, 122
dentioulata. 122
faloatus, 120
Stutgardtensis, 121
Whitbiensls, 120, 122
Pecten in terrace clay of

Kunnui, 91
Peh mountain, 113
Pehho (H), 117
Pehliu (H), 116
Pei Ho, 44, 48
Feikang mountain, 58
Peimenmountain,115,117
Peita mountain, 57
Peishi mountain, 58
Peisuh mountain, 114
Peitutsung, 57
Peiyun cave, 58
Peking, 46, 63, 68, 113,
121, 122, 124
plain of, 44
on border of delta plain,

46
table of the coal series
near, 11
Pekuen, the engineer, 44
Pelaifung mountain, 57
Pema, 110, 116
Penjinsk, N. E., S. W.

trend in gulf of, 1
Permian, 67
Perry, Japan expedition,

79
Peshan mountain, 56
Petersburg, Va., infuso-
rial earth, 88, 126, 127,
128
Feting mountain, 116
Petroleum at Yamukshi-
nai, 90
in Chinese salt walls, 53
Petung (white copper),

114, 116
Peyinkung, 115

*

138

IISTDEX.

Phonolithic lava at Futoro

Phylotheca, 119
Physical geography of Cen-
tral Asia, 77
Pihshan (H), 59
Pin (C), 61, 110
Pinghiang (H), 58
Pingl (H), 116
Pingliang (F), 110, 113

coal basin of, 63
Pingliang (H), 110, 113
Pingloh (F), 68, 61, 112,

116
Pingloh (H), 58, 61, 113,

116
Pingnan (H), 58
Pingtan, limekilns at, 52
Pingting (C),56, 110, 113
Pingwu (H), 60
Pingyang (F), 56,109,113
Pingyang (H), 57, 112, 115
"Pit of Heaven," 57
Pitchstone, 98, 105
Plain of Peking, 44

of Siuenhwa (F), 22
of Kir Noor, character

of, 29
of the Tungting lake,

7,8
of Hupeh and Hunan,
a swampy region in
early historical times,
9
Plains of South Mongolia,
70
of Mongolian plateau,
73
Plants, fossil, from China,

119
Plateau of Mongolia, con-
formation and height
of, 75
ascent to, 25, 70
plains of the Mongolian,

73
rock of the skeleton of

the, 75
valleys on the, 26
profile of, 75
former volcanic activity

on, 76
formerly covered by a
sea from the Caspian
to the Arctic, and to
mountains of North
China, 76
volcanic formation of,

26
the lower, 31
volcanic rooks of the, 38
lower and higher, due

to dislocation, 39
of terrace-loam, 32
Flateau-edge near Hanoor,

height of, 25
Plicated strata of quartz

schist at Kudo, 101
Plications of the strata in

the Kwei coal field, 6
Pluto -neptunian rocks of
Yesso, 104, 105
deposit about Nagasaki,

107
deposits of trachytic
porphyry, 25
Fodocaipites acicularis,
123

podocarpoldes, Taxites',

123
Podocarpus, Taxites, 123
Podozamites, 119, 123
Emmonsii, 120, 121
lanceolatns, 121
lancolotns, 120
Population of Tesso, 79
Porphyry, 11

at Gliaitang, 14

in Tatsau coal basin, 16

in Kingau mountains,

68
in limestone, 18
felsitic, 18
hornblendic, 18
Porphyries at Chingshui,
17
of South Yesso, 89
of the Wangping basin,

18
of Hiamaling, 41
Porphyry dykes in gra-
nite, 72
in clay slates near

Oyasu, 89
in Nankau pass, 21
at Hiamaling, 13
Porphyry, claystone, on
the Ousubetz creek,
101
trachytic, 25
trachytic, on the Gobi,

74
trachytic, of Kalgan, 23
greenstone, conglome-
rate, 36
Porphyry conglomerate,
origin of, 13
of Chaitang, 41
thickness of, 12
in Wangping coal
basin, 11
Porphyry-breccia near

Chauchuen, 34
Porphyry, quartzose, 18
quartziferons, gravel, 25
quartziferous, near

Shkahe, 84
quartziferous, of the

Raiden, 94
white quartziferous, of

Yesso, 104
white, in dykes at Ka-

kumi, 84
younger than lime-
stone, 14
younger than coal mea-
sures, 18
Poyang (H), 60
Poyang lake, 52, 65

rocks at outlet of, 7
Precipitation smelting of

lead ore in Japan, 81
Preparation of ore at Ichi-

nowatari, 80
Present course of Hwang

Ho, 49
Price of coal at Tashihtang

mine, 20
Prince Krapotkin, 68
Principal coal mines of

Chaitang district, 14 t
Productus subaouleatus,

54
Protogine in gravel of the

Yang Ho, 35
Fterozamites, 119

Pterozamites, linearis, 120
Oeynhausianus, 120
Sinensis, 120
Puchau (F), 109
Pucbiau, mountains of, 44
pugnus, Terebratula, 55
Puhkiang (H), 59
Pumice of Komangadake,
83
mantle of Komangadake

volcano, 82
subaerial deposits of,

84
with quartz crvstals at
Isoya, 93
Pumice-tufa of Yesso, 105
near Tomarigawa, 102
at Kumaishi, 102
Pumiceous tufa at Abura,

99
Pumpelly, H., report to
Chinese Government on
coal, 14
Pungchi (H), 57
Punglai (H), 110
Pu'rh (P), 59, 116
Pusung (H), 115
Putai, rate of growth of

delta at, 49
Pyiinsz, 120
coal at, 10

Quartz in trachytic rook
of Hakodade, 79
in trachytic . rook of

Totohoke, 86
in trachytic porphyry,

74
crystals in porphyry,

84
crystals in pumice at

Isoya, 93
double pyramid crys-
tals of, in Kakumi
porphyry, 84
condition of, in rocks of

Esan volcano, 86
varieties of, in trachytic

porphyry, 37
veins and masses in
metamorphic schists
on the Yarigtse, 4
veins of Yurup, 102
veins with iron and
copper pyrites near
Oyasu, 89
Quartziferous porphyry,
18
near Shkabe, 84
trachytic porphyry, 105
Quartzite, ridge of in cities
of Hanyang (P) and
Wuchang (P), 7
in limestone, 6
in the Mingan hills, 71
in Kunnui gravel, 91
Quartz-schist at Kudo, 101
Quicksilver, 113, 114, 115,
IIG

racemosa, Tymfanophora,

123
Radde, M., 68
Raiden promontory, lava
and tnfa-conglomer-
ate of, 94
mountain, as seen from
the sea, 98

Rapids of the Yangtse, 5
caused by granite,
4
silt deposits in, 9
Realgar, 116, 117, 118
Recent lake deposits of
valley of Yang Ho, 22
•formation at Tsingtan, 8
deposits of gravel and
clay in valley of
Yangtse, 8
change in the lower
course of the Hwang
Ho, 49
sandstone and con-
glomerate in valley
of Kir Noor, 28
terrace deposits on Yes-
so, 106
deposits of Yesso, 104
marine strata of south-
ern Yesso, 89
Red sandstone on the Mei-
ling, 52
of Itu, 7
"Regent's Sword," 64
Relative ages of some older
rooks in western Yesso,
101
Resume of geology of Yes-
so, 104
Retrograde formation of
valleys in terrace deposit,
40
reticularis, Terebratula, 55
Rhabdonema, 127
Rhinoceros tichorhinus,

77
Rhynchonella from China,
54
Hanburii, 54
Yuenamensis, 55
Rice and silk cultivation

on Yesso, 80
Richmond, Ya., infusorial
earth of, 88, 126
coal basin, 122

Ritter, Carl, 43, 44, 52, 53,

66, 75

Rocks of the Kwei coal
field, 6

coal, of Sz'chiien,. 6

at outlet of the Poyang
lake, 7

of hornblendic series
older than micaceous
series ? 41

of granitic and crystal-
line metamorphic
series, distribution
of, 34

of Ichinowatari series,
105

of eastern Altai moun-
tains, 74

of western Yesso, 104

of the auriferous gravel
of Kunnui, 91

Rock-crystal, 116, 117,
118

Rooky mountains, 69
Rogers, Prof., 126
Roman mission of Slwan,
33

"Russia and the Ural

Mountains," 55

INDEX.

139

Sagalin (Krafto), 79

aualysis of coal fi'om,

125
N. S. trend of axis of,
107
Saidotaa, veins near, 89
Sagami, serpentine on, 108
Salmon in the Tosliibetz,

93
Salt wells, 57, 64

table of, in China,

59
of Sz'chuen, de-
scription of;
deptliof ; cost of ;
inflammable gas
from ; evapora-
tion of salt from;
oil in, 53
deposits of Sz'chuen, 7
of western China,

64
at Wushan (H), 64
at Chiugking (F),

64
at Suohau (F), 64
in Shunking (P),
andKiating (F),
64
age of the, 64
Sanchuen mountain, 113
Sandstone, 72
greenish, 75
calcareous, near Kii-

chau ((•'), 62
and slate near Hwui-

chau (F), 52
at Kingtsewan, 52
red, opposite Nanking, 8

below Tungliu, 8
ferruginous, at Hwang-

chau (F), 7
at Sankiangkau, 7
of the Luoan gorge, 6
cal careous, of Kwei coal

field, 6
micaceous, of Kwei coal

field, 6
Gobi, under microscope,

127
of the steppe deposit, 73
in Mingan hills, 71
and oonglonierate beds
of southern Yesso, 104
near Aohase, 98
of coal series of Kaiya-

nobetz, 97
in slate at Shiwokubi,

89
volcanic, of Yessp, 105
Sangpuhia, 115
Sanbotsa, 112
Sankau (H), 114
Sankang Ho, 42

valley of the, 32
Sankia, 57

Sankiang (ancient mouths;

of Yangtse river), 48 i

Sankiangkau, sa,ndstone'

and conglomerate of, 7
Sanlo (H), 116
Sanmun, gorge of, 45
Sanpu (F), 112
Sansz' mountain, 57
SantBingming, 115
Saurin, Mr., 68
Savraradake volcano; see
Cowangadake, 82, 86, 96

Sanyii, 121, 122, 123
Scalaria in terrace clay of

Kuunui, 91
Scandinavian peninsula,

68
Schalstein, 22
Schists, metamorphio, of
Barrier range, 25
of micaceous series on
either side of Barrier
range, 36
resting on granite near
Kanchau (F), 52
Schlotheimii, Sphenopte-

ris, 122
Schmidt on terraces of

Amur river, 108
Scoria, volcanic, of Koman-

gadake, 83
Scoriae in lava-quarry at

Kwantuug (pu), 32, 39
Sea of Greenland, 69

former, of northern Asia,
77
Seals in the Caspian, 76
in the Baikal and Oron
lakes, 76
Sea-margin around the

delta-plain, 47
Selenga, terraces of the, 75
Semi - opal - like rock on

Kaiyanobetz creek, 97
Senji, hills of, 72
Seou mountain, 57
Setanai, cUffs of, 99
Serpentine near Yokoha-
ma, 107
on peninsula of Sagami,
108
Serpentinoidal rock on
the Ousubetz creek, 102
Serpula in terrace clay of

Kunnui, 91
Sha (H), 115
Shachulnng, sandstone

and coal near, 52
Shachung, chloritic gneiss

near, 35
Shaho (H),Z09
Shak, value of, 82
Shales and sandstone, coal,

in Kiangsi, 65
Shang(C),60,110,l]3,117
Shangling (H), 61, 116
Shangsz' (C), 58
Shangtsau (H), 111, 117
Shangyang river and Cheh-
kiang river, granite be-
tween, 52
Shansi province, 43, 44, 45,
51, 66, 66, 69, 63, 66,
109, 113, 116
analysis of coal from,

125
native map of, 43
Shantung, 57, 60, 110,3113,
117
gold in, 63
watershed of, 63
boundary of the delta-
plain, 46
mountains half inclosed
by the delta, 46
Shauchau (F), 52, 58, 61,

112, 118
Shanking (F), 58, 61, 112,

115
Sheh (H), 110

Shells, fresh-water, in ter-
race of Te Hai, 42
in terrace deposit, 30
in terrace clay near
Otoshibetz, 90
Shen (C), 114
Shensi province, 45, 56, 57,
59, 60, 66, 110, 113,
117
Barrier range in, 63
Shi mountain, 118
Shihping (C), 112
Shihtsien (F), 58, 111, 115
marble and caverns in,
63
Shihung (H), 111
Shijoushan, 60
Shikau mountain, 117
Shilieu mountain, 113
Shiling, 56
Shimakomakl, 99

tufa-conglomerate at, 98
Shinan (F), 60
Shinchau (F), 111, 115
Shingking (P), 67, 111
Shinmuh (H), 117
Shipau mountain, 116
Shiraita, tufa-conglomerate

at cape, 99
Shirarika, amygdaloid at,

90
Shiribetz river, 93, 94, 96,
98
extinct volcano of, 96
Shiribuka creek, 97, 98
Shishan, hills of, 7
Shitan, 56, 57
Shiwokubi (cape Blunt),

89
Shiyen, 56, 62

mountain, 58
Shkabe, hot springs of, 84
Shuking classic, 45, 47
of Confucius, record in,
of a deluge, 44
Shukwang (H), 48

yearly growth of delta
at, 60
Shuikin (H), 60
Shuiyin mountain, 113
Shunking (F),, 59

salt deposits of, 64
Shunteh (F), 56, 109
Shuntien (F), 66, 60, 109,

113
Si Ho, 27, 66

mountain, 114
Slang (C), 116
Siangtan (H), 52
Siangtung, analyses of

anthracite from, 124
Siau Ho, 116
Siau (H), 67
Siauku shan, 7, 51
Siaunienfang, 116
Siautungko, 56
Siayang (H), 110
Siberia, 67

N. E., S. W. trend of
rivers in eastern, 1
Sichang (H), 114
Sieh mountain, 69, 114
Sienping (H), 112
Sitiiang (H), 60
Sihma (T), 116
Sihungnien (H), 113
Siliceous schist of Wosat-
zube, 104

Sliceous-limestone, 22
at Kimiug, 36
of Hwaingan beds, 36
at Siuenhwa (P), 12
Silicified wood, 72
Silk culture on Yesso, 80
Silt deposits in the rapids

of the Yangtse, 9
Silver, 109, 110, 111, 113,

114, 115, 116
Sinchau (P), 58, 61, 116
Sinching (H), 110
Sinensis, Pterozamites, 120
Singan (H), 68, 110, 115
Singan (F), 60, 110, 113,

117
Singchaukung, 116
Singhiung (C), 112
Singho (H), 112
Singtanghia, 115
Singyang (H), 117
Sinhwui (H), 116
Sinians, 69

analogous to the Appa-
lachians, 62
Sinian system of elevation,
67
revolution begun after
deposition of Devo-
nian limestone, 68
revolution, determina-
tion of eastern
continental out-
line by, 68
termination of, 62
system on Yesso, 107
Sinim, 67
Sining (F), 60
Sining (H), 56, 60
Sinpaungan, 66

loam from, under micro-
scope, 127
Sinyang (H), 113
Sinyii (H), 58, 114
Sipeh mountain, 69
Siuenhwa (F), plains of,
22,56, 109, 113, 116
coal-basin of, 63
Sluenwei (C), 112, 116
Siuhing (H), 112
Siwan, Roman mission of,
33
loam from, under micro-
scope, 128, 127
terrace deposit at, 33
houses in loam at, 43
syenite of, 35
Siyen mountain, 109
Siying (H), 58
Siyin'sz, metamorphio

schists near, 33
Skunope, 82, 84
Slate and red sandstone

near Hwuichau (F), 52
Snakes on the Ousubetz

creek, 101
Snow - capped peaks in
Central China,
63, 66
south of the San-
kang Ho, 33
in Southern

China, 66
in the Nanling
mountains, 3
in Shansi, 21
Soda - efflorescence at
Gurban Noor, 27

140

INDEX.

Soda-eHIorescenoe in
valley f the Kir Noor, 28
Solfatara Komangadake, 82
of Esan, mud flows of, 86
Solfataras, destructive ac-
tion of, 84
Sonora, fossil plants from,

120
Sources of data for general
sketch of geology of China,
51
Southern limit of the
higher plateau, 31
Mongolia, volcanic for-
mation of, 26
the limit of a former
ocean, 42
Soyachi, 115
Soyang (H), 56
Soyang (Ts), 116
spatulatus, Taxites, 123
Spbene in granit?, 4
Sphenopteris, 119, 120
denticulata, 122
dichotoma, 122
hymenophylloides, 122
orientalis, 121, 122, 123
Schlotheimii, 122
tridactylites, 122
Spirifer from China, 54
disjunctus from China,

54
Cheohiel, 55
Verneuillii, 55
Spirorbis from China, 54

omphalodes, 54
Sponge spiculse, 126
Springs of chalybeate water
at Kudo, 101
calcareous deposit of

former, 28
action of, in valley of
Kir Noor, 28
of, near Fungohing,
31
Sse Ma Tien on history of

Yellow river, 47
Stalactites, 56, 57, 58
in the Ichang gorge, 5
in Taingan (F) and Kii
(C), 63
Stamping machinery at

Ichinowatari, 81
Standard line of reference

for parallelism, 1
Stanovoi mountains, 67
N. E., S. W. trend
of, 1
Steam coal at Futau mine,
14
in crater of Esan, 86
temperature of, on Mt.
Iwaounohori, 95
Steppe deposit, 74, 75
of plateau, 75
structure of, 71
erosion in the, 77
of the plateau, age
of, 76
Steppes of Mongolian pla-
teau, 73
Sticto discus, 127
" Stone swallows," 62
Strangerites magnifolia,

120
Stratiform structure of vol-
canic formation of the pla^
teau, 39

Strogonoff hay, 97, 106
Stutgardtensis, Fecopte-

ris, 121
subaculeatus, Productus,

54
Snbaerial deposits on Yes-
so, 106
of volcanic ashes,
84
Subjugation of the Yellow

river in early times, 47
Subterranean river

courses in Kwangsi, 53
Suchau (F), 57, 114
Siichau (P), 57, 59
Siichau (F), coal-basin of,
65
crevasse of Yellow river
in, 49
Suenhwa (H), 58
Suh (C), 60

Suingan (H), 112, 115, 117
Suiting (F), 59, 60, 111, 117
Sulphate of iron, 116, 117,

118
Sulphur, 117, 118

process of working, on

Esan, 87
mode of occurrence of,

on Esan, 87
furnaces on Esan, 87
production of, on Esan,

88
cost of production of,

on Esan, 88
formation of, on Koman-
gadake, 83
occurrence of, on Iwaou-
nohori, 95
net-work of, veins in
Mt. Iwaounobori, 95
amount and cost of pro-
duction of, at works
of Iwaounobori, 97
columnar structure in
mud stream produced
by crystals of, 87
and alum on Esan, 86
Sulphur-inrorks on Esan,
87
on Iwaounobori, 97
Sulphuretted hydrogen in
spring of Shkabi,
84
in gases of Iwaou-
nobori, 95
Sulphurous acid and

steam, action of,
on rocks, 86
in gases of Iwaou-
nobori, 95
Sulungpu, 57
Summit-level of the Im-
perial canal, 48
Sung mountain, 58, 110, 113
Sung (H), 110, 114
Sungari river, 64, 68
Sungchi (II), 112
Sungchl river, 61, 111
Sungho (H), 117
Sungkia mountain, 113
Sungshan, 60
Sungyang (H), 60, 115
Sutsuwei (Ts) 116
Sutzu, rocks near, 98
Syenite of Siwan, 35

dykes of, in'schists near
Siwan, 35

Syenite under lava of pla-
teau, 27
near Murkwoching, 35
fragments of, in the tra-
chytic porphyry tufas
of Kalgan, 85
near Futoro, 100
at Oouta, 100
Syeuitlc granite on the
Yangtse, 4
near Siwan, 33
at Nichinbe, 100
age of, on western

Yesso, 101
of Yesso, relative
age of, 104
rocks on the Gobi, 74
Synclinal ridges at Chai-

tang, 14
Sz'chau (F), 111, 115
Sz'chl river, 115
Sz'ching (F), 118
Sz'chuen province, 51, 57,
59,60,64,66,111,114,
117
coal rocks of, 6
salt deposits of, 7
Blaokiston's observa-
tions in, 62
highlands of western, 63
salt wells of, 53
upper Devonian fossils
from, 55
Sz'kiautungtsing, 116
Szling, 113

Sz'nan (F), 111, 115, 117
Sz'ngan (H), 116
Sz'ngan (F), 61, 116
Sz'ni mountain, 113

Table of recognizable events

in geology of China

and Mongolia, 77, 78

of the coal series near

Peking, 11
of coal, alum, limestone,
fossils, caves, stalaC'
tites, etc., in China,
56, 57, 58
of the mineral produc-
tions of China, 109
Table-land of Shensi, 66
in Kwangsi and Kwei-

chau, 66
in Yunnan, 66
in Shensi and Kansuh,

3
of Central Asia, 10
Tael, value of, 53
Tah (H), 117
Tai (C), 113

Taichau (F), 58, 112, 115
Taihu lake, 57
Taihusz', 114
Taingan (P), 57, 110, 113,

117
Taiping (F), 57, 58, 110
Taipingyin (Ts), 116
Taiting (F), 115
Taiwan (F), 60, 118
Taiyuen (H), 59, 109
Taiyuen (P), 66, 59, 109
Takeda, Mr., 88
Takwan (F), 116
Tala (plain), 73
Talco-argillaceous schist in
the Mingan hills, 71

Talcose schist in hills of

Senjl, 72
Tali (F), 58, 59
Talo lake, 46

plateau west of delta-
plain, 46
Talu (Ts), 116
Tamchintala plain, 71, 73

erosion in, 77
Tametl (Ts), 112
Taming (P), 48, 116
Taming (H), caverns of, 63
Tan mountain, 56, 57
Taney mountains, 57
Taning (H), 56, 117
Tankingshan, 60
Tangtang (Ts), 116
Tangyueh (C), 116, 118
Tashi mountain 110
Tashitung mine, analyses
of anthracite from, 19, 124
Tashuikung, 115
Tashuitang, 112
Tatan, 56

Tating (P), 111, 115
Tatsau anthracite mine, 15
56
assay, production
and cost of an-
thracite of, 16
analysis of anthra-
cite of, 123
Tatsing river, 48

present outlet of
Hwang Ho, 49
Tatsingitungchi, 109
Tatso (H), 111
Tataoh (H), 59, 60, 117
Tatung (F), 56, 59, 110, 113
116
coal basin of, 63
fire mountain near, 65
analysis of coal from,
125
Tatung (H), 59
Tanlichuen, 26
TaTvan mountain, 115
Taxlneas, 123
Taxites, 120

podocarpoides, 123
Podocarpus, 123
spatulatus, 123
Tayang mountain, 113
Tayau river, 61
Taye (H), 111, 114
Taylor, R. C, 53
Tayii (H), 111
Tchihatche0, 67
Te Hai, 76

valley of, 30
water of, salt, 30
terrace deposit in val-
ley of, 30
earths from, under mi-
croscope, 126
fresh-water shells in ter-
race of, 42
connection of the val-
ley of with Hwang
Ho valley, 43
gametic gneiss and gra-

nnlite near, 35
and Kir Noor valleys,
origin of, 42
Tehhwa (H), 112
Tehyih mine, analyses of

anthracite from, 19, 124
Tekang, 110

INDEX.

141

tenellus, Hymenophyllites,

122
Terebratula cuboides, 65
pugmis, 55
reticularis, 55
in terrace olay of Kun-
nui, 91
Terrace-bluff near Yurup,

90
Terrace-clay deposits on
Yesso, 106

deposit, recent at
Kunnui, and
shells in, 91

with shells near
Otoshibetz, 90
Terrace-deposit, 23

between the Siang
river and Yuen
rirer, 8

between Payang
and Tung'sz, 8

below Tungliu, 8

distribution of, in
Northern China,
39

description of, 39

valley of Yangkau.
32

in valley of Kwan-
tung (pu), 32

in valley of Kir
Noor, 29

in valley of the TS
Hai, 30, 126

in tributary of the
T^ Hai, 31

in valley of the Si
Ho, 40

in system of Yang
Ho and Sankanc
Ho, 39

between Chatau
and Kiming, 39

between Paungaii
and Tatung, 39

on Kiming moun-
tain, 39

arouud Siuenhwa
(F), 39

in Kalgan gorge, 39

in valley of the
Siwan, 39

on pass between
Yang Ho and
Hwaiugaucreelt,
39

in gorge of Yang-
kau, 39

at the Tg Hai, 39

at the Kir Noor, 39

in valley of Chaa-
chuen, 34

near Kiming, 34

at Siwan, 33

deep gullies in, 40

fossil remainsin, 34

remains of deer and
other quadru-
peds in, at Siwan
34

in valley of the Yel-
low river, 43

dwellings excavat-
ed in, 33, 40

at Yokohama, 107

recent on Volcano
bay, 90

Terrace loatn in valley of

the Si Ho, 28
Terraces of the Yangtse
valley, 8
of the Yangtse, height

of the, 8
in Sz'ohuen, 8
on Qliiua coast, 108
of recent deposits at

Chaitang, 14
of recent lake deposit
in the valley of Yang
Ho, 22
near Gashun, 72
of Hakodade, 79
near Sutzu, 98
of Japanese coast, 108
Terrace-formation at Na-
gasaki, 107
Tertiary coal, 62, 119
Teutal, 26

Te'yang mountain, 110
Tibetan highland, 9

and Sz'chueu sources
of the Yangtse, watei'-
shed between, 63
Tlchi river, 61, 111
tichorinus, Rhinocerus, 77
Tie mountain, 110, 111,112
Tiekung mountain, 109
Tienching, 32
Tienmun (H), 114
Tienshan mountains, 42
volcanic action in, 76
Tiental (H), 115
Tientai mountain, 11 5
Tientsin, formerly on the

sea-shore, 50
Tientsingyang, 115
Tiewei (H), 59
Tiling mountain, 110
Timbering, cost of at mines
of Ichinowatari, 82
of coal mines in China,
19
Tin, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116
Tingchau (P), 112, 115
Tingpun (H), 59
Tingsiang (H), 59
Ting Wang (Chow dy-
nasty)
Yellow river in reign of,
47
Tingyuen (H), 59, 112
Tishan (H), 111
Tishan mountain, 111
Tisung (H), 112, 115
To mountain (H), 113
Tomari gawa, 105

creek, material trans-
ported by, 99
pumice tufa near, 102
Topaz, 318
Toshibetz river, 105
mouth of, 99
flats of the, 100
terrace deposit in val-
ley of the, 106
gold-washings of Kun-
nui on, 91
Totohoke, rocks of, 86

traohytic rocks of, 85
Touchstone, 118
Tourney, Prof., 128
Tourgen Gol, 29, 43
Trachydolerite, 39
Traohytic rocks of the
plateau, 38

Trachytic rocks of Hoko-
dade, 79
of Iwaounobori, 94
with veins of sul-
phur on Iwaoun-
obori, 95
with tubular struc-
ture, 98
on Raiden moun-
tain, 9 i
of Komangadake,
83
Trachytic porphyry, 42
of Kalgan, 23
of Kalgan, descrip-
tion of, 37
dykes of, 38
gorge in, near Kal-
gan, 33
on the Gobi, 74
tufa of, 23, 37
near Sutzu, 98
Trans-Baikal, N. E.,S.W.
trend in mountains of, 1
Trees in valley of Kir Noor,
28
absence of on the table-
land of Mongolia, 72
Trend, E. W. system of, in
China, 2
N. E., S. W. system of
in Eastern Asia, 1, 2
N. S., apparently con-
fined to Western
China, 2
Triassic coal, 119
Triceratium, 127
tridactylites, Sphenopte-

ris, 122
Trout in the Toshibetz, 93
Taang mountain, 58, 115
Tsanghoh (H), 118
Tsangkia shan, 60
Tsangting (H), 112, 115
Tsau (H), 57
Tsau lake, 46
Tsauchitsing, 59
Tse mountain, 112
Tseh (C), 113
Tsehchau (P), 56, 110,116
Tsenngan (H), 58
Tsepe mountains, 57
Tsetse (Ts), 112
Tseuhong, 56
Tsianglo (H),112
Tsiehlui (Ts), 112
Tsienchau (F), 112
Tsienkiang (H), 61
Tsienngan(H), 60,109, 113
Tsienshan (H), 58, 114
Tsietsz'tang, 116
Tsilitutsz', 116
Tsin (C), 57, 110, 113
Tsinan (F),46, 57, 110
increase of Tatsing river
at, 49

Tsing (C), 61, 111
Tsingchau (F), 57, 60, 110,

113
Tsinghai, 50
Tsingloh (H), 56
Tsingloh (H), coal basin

of, 63
Tsingnan (H), 110, 113
Tsingnien (H), 59
Tsingging (H), 114
Tsingshui (H),113

Tsingtan built on conglo-
merate terrace, 8
Tsingtsa, 112
Tsingtsing (H) ,111
Tsingyuen (H), 59
Tsinhien (H),lll
Tsinki (H;, 58
Tsinngan (H), 57
Tsinyuen (H), 113
Tsiuenchau (F),58

coal in, 65
Tsi-weitsz'kung, 115
Tsoking mountain, 115
Tau mountain, 60, 113
Tsuhlung (F), 59, 61, 116
Tsuhhiung (H), 61, 116
Tsuhtung (F),112
Tsukintsing, 59
Tsungara, rooks on straits
of, 104
straits of, 89
Tsungho (H), 112, 115
Tsungking (H), 60
Tsungku (H), 110
Tsungnan, 117
Tsungnan (C), 112
Tsungnan mountain, 113
Tsungni (H),114
Tsunhwa (C), 109
Tsuni (F), 61, 115,117
Tsunkiang river, 60
Tsutsesantung, 58
Tsutsu (Ts), 112
Tsuyutsung, 112
Tsz' (C), 56, 59, 109, 111
Tsz' mountain, 109, 110,

114
Tsz' river, 65
Tsz'hu mountain. 111
Tsz'kiang (H), 115
Tsz'nien mountain, 115
Tsz'yang (H), 59
Tsz'ye mountain, 115
tubasformis, Aulopora, 55
Tufa of Yurup mountains,
104
palagonite, on Yesso,

104, 105
of trachytic porphyry

at Kalgan, 37
of, greenstone porphyry,

22
of trachytic porphyry,
fragments of syenite
in, 35
red and brown at Fu-

toro, 100
volcanic, of Yesso, 105
pumiceous,at Abura, 99
of trachytic porphyry,
23
Tufa-conglomerate, vol-
canic, 105
of South Yesso, 89
ou the Raiden
mountain, 94, 98
between Yurup and
Volcano bay, 103
at Cape Moteta, 99
near Yurup mines,

102
near Kumaishi, 102
at Futoro, 100
on the Ousubetz

creek, 101
covered by lava-
bed near Abura,
99

142

INDEX.

Tufa -conglomerate, at
tietanai, 99
at Cape Shiraita, 99
at Shimakomaki,

98
at Achase, 98
Dear Odaszu, 93
west of Volcano

bay, 90 -
near Totohoke, 85
at Isoya, 93
on Iwauai bay, 97
with spines of an
Ecbinoderm near
Washinoki, 90
relative age of the
104
Tufa-sandstone at Abura

99
Tula river, 74
Tung mountain, 114, 115
Tungchau (F), 56, 57, 60,

110, 117
Tungohuen (F), 57, 59, 61,

111, 112, 114, 116
Tungfung (H), 57, 110
Tungjin (F), 61, 111, 115
Tungkwei (H), 56
Tungkwei mountain, 114,

116
TungUang (H),lll
Tungliu, red sandstone

near, 8
Tunglu (H), 58
Tungnan (H), 112
Tungnien mountain, 58
Tungpu (Ts), 116
Timgsan, 118
Tungsan (H), 110
Tungshan (H), 114
Tungshl mountain, 116
Tungting lake, ancient bed
of, 7

effect on, of changes

in the fall of the

Tangtse, 9

plain of the, 64

Tungting shan, 60

Tungtsz' (H), 61, 117

Tungwei (H), 57, 118

Tungyueh (T), 118

Tungyuyen, 116

Tushikau gate of the Great

Wall, 2, 63
Tutlnza, 70

quarries near, of tufa
and porphyry, 25
Tuyun (F), 115
Tymfanophora racemosa,
123

TTgundui mountain, 70
TTlandzabukdaban, clay,

slate, and gneiss in, 72
TTlanhada, 83
tXlannoor, valley of, 72
Ungyuen (H), 112
Upheaval of the Mongolian
plateau, 44
of South Mongolia, 42
Yesso a point of inter-
section of three lines
of, 106
TTnlo in creeks of Yesso,
Unstratified granitic rocks,

34
TJral mountains, 68, 77
XXrga (Kuren), 72, 75

tJrtal, road from Kalgan to,

25
TTrus, Bos, 77
Usu, volcano of, 83
TJsurl river, 64

Valley of the Te Hai, 30

of the Yang Ho, 22
Valleys, longitudinal, in
eastern Asia, 1
on the plateau, 26
of southern Mongolia, 70
retrograde erosion of, in

terrace deposit, 40

geoclinal, of northern

hemisphere, 68

Vegetation near Iwanal, 94

"Vehicle of fluidity," 87, 88

Vein-quartz near Shkabe,

84
Veins of quartz east of Ha-,
kodade, 89
lead, at Yurup, 102
mannerof occurrence of,
at Ichinowatari, 105
Ventilation of coal mines

by fan^lowers, 19
Vermiform fossil in argil-
lite, 90, 102, 104
at Isoya, 93
in argillite at Kun-

nui, 91
in argillite near
Achase, 98__
VerneuilUi, Spirifer,'55
Virginia, fossil plants of,
120
infusorial earths of, 125,
126, 127, 128
Vitim river, 76
Volcanic-ash beds of Yes-
so, 106
Volcanic ashes at Isoya, 93
from Isoya under
microscope, 127
infusoria in, from
Isoya, 127
Volcanic cones visible

from Iwaouno-
bori, 96
abundant on Yesso,
106
Volcanic plateau,eharaoter
of surface of, 26
region of southern Mon-
golia, in prolonged
axis of the Tienshan,
42
crocks of Mongolia, 42
of Chihli, 10
on the Gobi desert,
73
sconce, 74

zone of southern Mon-
golia, 42
tufa-conglomerate, 105
fossil in, 106
near Ichinowatari,

82
breccia near
Shkabe, 84
formation of the plateau
of Mongolia, 26,
38, 70
around the Kir

Noor, 28
around lake Baikal,
75

Volcano of Esan, 86, 105
of Iwaounobori, 94

ascent of, 94
of Komangadake, 82
ascent of, and vege-
tation on, 82
Volcano bay in Yesso, 79,
83, 90, 104, 105
terrace deposits on,

106
view of, from Ko-
mangadake, 83
Vrless, 85

AATaoke, 31

near Kunnui, 91
Waitso (H), 56
V/an (H), 59, 60, 113
■Wanchau (F), 57, 65, 115,

117
■Wangkiang (H), 60
Wanglung cavern, 57
Wangmatsien mountain,

58
V/angpei (Ts), 115
Wangping (H), 56, 109

coal basin of, 10
■Wanngan (H), 52
■Wantsuen (H), 66
Vrantsui (H), 58
■Warm springs on the
Oussubetz creek,
101
on the Eaiden
mountain, 94
at Yunogawa, 89 '
of Kakumi, 86
of Shkabe, 84
and cold, at Yurup, 103
■Water communication,
navigable between
sources of Siang river and
a tributary of the Si river,
3
■Waterfalls on the coast of

Yesso, 85
■Waahinoki, 91, 106

tufa-conglomerate near,
90
■Watersheds, alluvial, 28
of the Upper Yangtse,
Cambodia and Sal-
ween rivers, 2
between the Te Hai and
Hwang Ho, 43
■Watershed, remarkable,
in valley of Kwan-
tung (pu), 32
in valley east of T6 Hai,

31

between the Gobi basin

and Arctic ocean, 74

between Japan sea and

■Volcano bay, 102

■Water-'willo'ws on Yesso,

93
■Western Hupeh, 68

Siberia, former sea of, 76
coast of Yesso, excur-
sion to, 90
■Wei river, 44, 46, 66
•Weining (C), 111, 115
■Weitsang (H), 111
■Weitsz' (H), 116
■Weiyuen (H), 59, 111
■Whetstone, 118
Whitbiensis, Peoopteris,
120, 122

White porphyry, blocks of
on Esan, 86
quartziferous porphyry
on the Raiden moun-
tain, 94
■White sea, 69
Whitney, Prof. J. D., 120,

126
■Wild roses at Hakodade, 80
Williams, S. W., 109
■Winning of coal in Chinese

mines, 20
■Winter climate of Mon-
golia, 70
"Wood, silicified, 72
■Wood'wara, Mr., 55
■Wosatzube, silicious
schist of, 104
black hornstone at, 85
warm spring in the sea
at, 85
■Woshimanbe, terrace

near, 93 '

■Wuchang (P), 111, 114
■Wuchang (H), 111, 114
■Wuchau (F), 58, 61, 118
■Wuchuen (H), 116
■Wuishan, clay-slate and

granite in, 52
■Wukang (G), 116
■Wukang (H), 116
V/ungan (H), 114
Wunghi (H),]13
"Wuning (H), 112
■Wushan (H), 59, 111, 117
■Wushikia, 56
■Wutai shan, 63
■Wutaiyau, 56^
■Wutih (Han dyn), changes

of Yellow river in reign

of, 132 B.C., 47
■Wuting (C), 58, 59, 112,

116, 118
■Wuting (H), 116
■Wutsz' mountain, 118
■Wutungtu mountain, 112

■y (C), 56
Ya (C), 60

Yablonoi mountains, 67
N. E., S. W. trend
of, 1
Yachau (P), 114
Yai (C), 116
Yaluh river, 64
Yamukshinai, mineral oil

springs at, 90
Yang mountain, 116
Yangchi, limestone near

town of, 7
Yangching (H), 56, 110,

113
Yang Ho, 42 •

valley of, 22
terrace deposits of

the upper, 32
gorges of the, 44
recent lake in val-
ley of, 45
Yanghochiao, 59
Yangh-wa, 117
Yanghwashan, 60
Yangkiang (H), 112
Yangsantung, 58
Yangshan (11), 112, 115
Yangtse, Kiang, 44, 46, 51,
66, 67, 121, 124
rapids of the, 5

INDEX.

143

Yangtse, N. E., S. W. trend

of middle course of, 1

flows alternately in

longitudinal and

transversal valleys, 3

from Hankau to the

sea, 7
ridges crossing the, 65
formerly entered sea
through three arms,
48
changes in the fall of, 9
recent terraces in val-
ley of, 8
absence of eruptive
rooks on, 62
Yangtsung (H), 112
Yao, great flood in the reign

of, 44
Yau (C), 59, 61
Yauking (P), 58
Yching (H), 56
Yedo Bay, 107

country around bay of,
107
Yehchintsung, 57
Yellow river, or Hwang
Ho, 2, 43, 44
N.E., S.W. trend

of upper, 1
explanation of
maps of lower
course of, 47
historical changes
in the course of,
46
in the time of Yu,
before 602 B. C,
47
in time of Ting
Wang (Chow
dyn.), 47
changes in, under
Wentih, 160
B. C, 48
changes in, 11 B.C.,
48
under the Tang
and five suc-
ceeding dynas-
ties, 48
from A. D. 70 till

1040, 48
under Sung dy-
nasty, A. D.
1048-1194, 48
under Kin dyn.,

48
under Yuen and
Ming dyn., 48
great divergence of
lower arms of,
during 3,000
years, 48

YellOTW river rises in
Kwenlun moun-
tains, 48
an object of con-
stant terror, 48
recent shifting of
mouth of, from
Yellow sea to
gulf of Pechele,
49
channel of the, be-
tween Shansi
and Shensi, 44
great floods referred
to overflow of, 45
Chinese histories

of, 47
Biot on changes in

course of, 47
dykes of the, 47
subjugation of the,
in early times, 47
great overflow of,
to northeast, 47
great difficulty in

controlling, 48
the bed of, higher
than adjoining
plains, 48
Barrow's estimate
of silt discharged
by, 49
importance of, in
time of war, 48
Yellow sea (or Hwang

Hai), 44, 49
Yen mountain, 110
Yenchau (F), 58, 60, 110,
112, 113, 115, 117
limestone mountains
near, 52
Yenching (H), 110
Yenchu (H), 56
Yenchuen (H), 57
Yenking (C) the eastern
limit of ancient lakes, 43
Yenngan (F), 57
Yenplng (P), 112, 115
Yenshan mountain, 61
Yenshi mountain, 68
Yenting (H), 111
Yentsang (pu), 59
Yenyuen (H), 59, 60, 111,

114
Yentsin, 48

Yesso, Japanese island of,
79, 107, 108
geological itineraries in,

79
a point of intersection
of three systems of
elevation, 106
ammonites from, 106
analysis of coal from,
125

Yesso, coal at various
points on, 106
infusoria in volcanic

ashes from, 127
infusorial earth from,
under microscope, 126
rock skeleton of south-
ern, 105
submerged during de-
position of volcanic
conglomerate, 106
volcanic cones numer-
ous on, 106
forests of, 79
population of, 79
rice and silk culture on,

80
roads in, 79
Yew, 123
Yih (H), 110, 113
Yih mountain, 113
Yihte (H), 57, 110
Yin mountain, 115
Ying (C), 60
Ying mountain, 114
Yingkiang (H), 117
Yingliang mountain, 113
Yingmachuen, gametic

gneiss at, 36
Yingte (H), 61
Yingting (H), limestone

and cavern near, 52
Yingwo mine, analyses of

anthracite from, 19, 125
Yinkung, 116

mountain, 115
Yintau (C), 67
Yintie mountain, 58
Yinyen, 113
Yinyu, 113

Yochau (P), 61, 111, 115
Yohyang (H), 111
Yokohama, neighborhood
of, 107
country south of, 108
diorite, gabbro, and
serpentine near, 107
Yoyang (H), 66, 109, 114
Yu (0), 110, 113
Yu (H), 113
Yii (C), 56, 114
Yu drains the Empire, 45
Yellow river in time of,
47
Yuen river, 65, 66
Yiihwang mountain, 113
Yiihopu, 59
Yuenamensis, Ehynoho-

nella, 66
Yuenchau (F), 61, 115, 117
Yuenohu (H), 113
Yuenmau (H), 58, 118
Yuenmo (H), 59
Yuhlin (C), 116
Yuki (H), 112, 115

Yukung, 47
YukungchuchI, 47
Yulin (F), 56, 59

coal-basin of, 63
Yulin (C), 58
Yulln(H), 56, 59
Yung (Hj, 59, 61, 111, 112
Yungchang (P), 57, 58, 61,

66, 112, 116, 118
Yungohau (F), 58, 111, 115
Yungchun (C), 112, 115
Yungking (H), 114
Yunglung (C), 59
Yungmen (H), 112, 116,

118
Yungngan (H), 116
Yungngan (C), 61
Yungning (C), 116
Yungpeh (T), 59, 61, 112,

116
Yungping (F), 46, 56, 60,

109, 113
Yungshun (F), 111, 117
Yungsul (T), 115, 117
Yungtsang (H), 60, 111
Yungtse, lake, 47
Yungyang (F), 114
Yungyang (H), 59, 111
Yunko mountain, 57
Yiinkung shan, 57
Yunnan province, 58, 59,
61, 64, 112, 116, 118

hydrography of, 66
Yunnan (F), 112, 116, 118
Yunogawa, warm spring

at, 89
Yiinseh (H), 116
Yuntsung (Ts), 116
Yunyang (F), 57
Yurup, 105

creek, 90

lead mines of, 102

amount and cost of lead
production at, 103

village of, 104

Aino village near, 90
Yushan (H), 114
Yiishan (H), 111
Yutse (H), 109
Yuyang (C), 60, 114
Yutsung (H), 109
Yuyau (H), 115

Zamia lanceolata, 121
Zamites lanceolatus, 121
Zeolite in amygdaloid of

Shirarika, 90
Zinc blende in copper vein
at Saidoma, 89
in Kakumi veins, 85
in lead veins, 80
iu Yurup veins, 102
Zircon-sand in Kunnui
gravel, 91

PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

WASHINGTON CITY,
AUGUST, 1866.

PLATE 1.

See Chapter II.
Section along the Yangtse Kiang from the Pacific Coast to Pingshan (hien) in Western Sz'chuen.

The portion of the section lying between the coast and the coal-field of Kvvei is based on the
observations of the author ; the remainder is deduced from the observations of Capt. Blacki-
ston, and from the study of the mineral productions of the province of Sz'chuen.

The horizontal distances are taken from the Admiralty charts of the river between the coast and the
Tungting lake ; thence to Pingshan (hien), from Blackiston's chart of the Upper Yangtse.

The vertical distances east of the Tungting lake are from the Admiralty surveys ; west of the
Tungting lake they are merely estimated.

19 August, 1866.

(145)

Pingahan (Long. 104°25"e. Lai. 2S°4o"n.

Plate!

Coal Series.

Xiimestoue

Coal Series

Coal Series

Limestone

Coal Series

Limestone Coal Series

Limestone

Coal Series

^mmmmmmmmm

Coal Series

x^

Limestone

^:^??:>^j:^$^c;e^y^^^^;^^<

Coal Field of Kwei

Coal Series

lAican Gorge _ .^ ^^___^_^~~^^ ^ /r->^_.<^~^ Ichang

Ur^e^i^r^^W^^^^^ ^ " «-«-<^-«'— t'' C:s.Sandst.

Field of Kwei ■^^'^ ,J^7j7T- r'n^TTrr^

A*

.^•*

C. S. Sandstone

C. S. Sandstone

'yy/'^^t^

Tunting Lake

Limeston

liecent Terrace C. S. Arg. Schist

C. S. Arg. Schist

C. S. Sandstone Rec. Terrace

C. S. Sandstone

Limestone

Limeston(

Kiukiang

C. S. Sandstone?

Limestone?

.Limestone?

s.^?:tX

Limestone?

Tungliu

C. S. Sandstone Sandstone?

Pt. Morton

^ Limestone?

Limestone?

C. S. Sandstone

Nanking

e?i^-rr^^ £S^7^

,gSgB37^

CMnkiang

C. S. Sandstone

C. S. Sandstone

Recent

Sandstone

Clay Svhist

Conglomerate Coal Series generally Limestone

fe^ti-C.f

Chinese Coal Measures

Y

Devonian Metamorphic Gran:

Pacific Coast to Pingshan in Sz'chuen.

Horiz. Scale 6.28 miles to 1 dec. inch. Heights 4500 feet to 1 dec. inch.

Plate!

. Limestone

Coal Series

Coal Series

Limestone Coal Series

Limestone

Coal Series

Limestone

C. IS. Sandstone

I/ankau

-A-

S. Arg. Schist

0. S. Arg, Schist

C. S. Arg. Schist ^ C. S. Arg. Sch. C. S.

Quartzite

C. S. Sandstone

Limestone

Limestone

itone ?

.Limestone?

SSv.££5wdi>c

Limestone?

Tungliu

C. S. Sandstone Sandstone?

Ft. Morton

I^L

Limestone?

C. S. Sandstone

Sandstone?

C. S. Sandstone

jgS^g^

CMnkiang

Flats of the Pacific Coast.

Sandstone

Clay Schist

Conglomerate Coal Series generally Limestone

•4^-^

Chinese Coal Measures

Devonian Metamorphic Granitic

Pacific Coast to Pingshan ia Sz'chuen.

Horiz. Scale 6.28 miles to 1 dec. inch. Heights 4500 feet to 1 dec. inch.

PLATE 2.

See Chapter IV.
Moute Map of the Tang Ho District.

This map is intended to show roughly the geological and topographical features of a portion of the
boundary between the Great Plateau of Central Asia and the mountains of China.

The survey was made by the author from observations -(jith a dioptric compass, the distances being
measured by timing a horse whose gait was well known. The work was plotted in the field
on a Mercator basis. The route followed in the mountains, immediately west of Peking, is
not indicated ; on the rest of the map, from Changkiakau (Kalgan) westward, it is marked by
the, generally zigzag, line running through most of the villages. Going westward from.
Changkiakau (Kalgan) by the northern, and returning by the southern route, the plotting
overlapped at Changkiakau by five and a half miles, an excess which represents the final,
uncompensated, error of the work.

The positions of Siuenhwa, Tatung, and Tungching, are from the Jesuit astronomical observations ;
that of Peking is from those of the Russian astroDomers.

The section lines of Plate 3 are represented on this map.

(147)

Plato -!

f^

q

^

G

OJ

'CJ

o

t:

hJ

OJ

H

_J

PLATE 3.

Ske Chapter IV.
Geological Sections in Northern Chihli and Southern Mongolia.

Siuenhwa to Daikha Noor.

Nankau to Daikha Noor.

The heights are merely estimated, excepting that of the edge of the plateau, near Ilanoor, which is
from the measurements of Messrs. Fuss and v. Bunge.

ITnfortunately the capital letters indicating breaks in the course of the section lines wore omitted on
the map, Plate 2.

Plate 3

Valley of tJie
Tehai

I^P^

M

Hoyurnoor

ITTTTKiTnTin<nTn

Si So

^Tmm-YnrTTTTxr

lioyuriolo Gol

Tdulichuen

Sl^^^^P^

Siuenhwa to Daikha Noor

Barrier Range

Liushitung

ICimifig

+ *^^Iioailai

Chatav,

ijiiii^ " A

Nankau to Daikhanoor.

Loam of the Volcanic Rocks of the Traehytic
Ancient Lakes. Plateau. Popliyry.

^ /\ A /^l

Chinese Coal
Measures.

Devonian
Limestone.

Metamorphic
SchisK

Granitic
Kocks.

Granitic Rocks or
Metam. Schists.

Horiz. Scale 10.46 miles to 1 dec. inch. Heights 5000 feet to 1 dec. inch.

PLATE 4.

See Chaptek V.
Maps Bepresenting the Historical Changes in the Course of the Yellow River, or Hwang Ho.

Map I. Lower course of the Yellow river from the time of Yu down to B. C. 602. Also the
ancient mouths of the Yangtse Kiang.

Map II. Course after the first great change during the Chow dynasty (B. C. 602).

Map III, Course during the third century, B. C.

Map IV. Course resulting from changes about 132 B. C.

Map V. Second great change about 11 B. C.

Map VI. The channels as they existed during the Tang and five succeeding dynasties, from A. D.
70 to A. D. 1048.

(151)

f 95^1 J

PLATE 5.

See Chapter V.

Maps Bepresenting Historical Changes in the Course of the Yellow River, or

Hwang Ho. — Continued. • ~

Map VII. The course under the Sung dynasty, A. D. 1048 to A. D. 1194.

Map VIII. The course under the Kin dynasty.

Map IX. The course under the Y uen (Mongol), and, so far as the channel running due east from
Kaifung is concerned, under the Ming and Tatsing (Manchn) dynasties down to the
middle of the present century. That, portion of the Imperial canal lying north of the
Yellow river is indicated, it being mainly in the channel excavated by the river during
the Kin dynasty.

Map X. Represents the last change, which occurred within the last ten or fifteen years.

Map XI. Comprehensive map of the Yellow river, including the delta-plain and the ancient lake
system, and the supposed Tormer channel of the river through the lakes to the Gulf
of Pechele.

20 August, 1866.

153 )

2 n^d

PLATE 6.

See Chaptee VI.

Hypothetical Map of the Geological Structure of China, based on Observations in the North and
in the Basin of the Tangtse Kiang, and on a Study of the Mineral Productions of the Empire.

The geographical basis of this map is taken from Arrowsmith's map, published in Blackiston's
"Five Months on the Upper Yangtse."

I have altered the position of the Lower Yellow river on the map, to make it agree with its present
course.

(155)

Platr G

\ \

PLATE 7.

See Chapter VII.
Map of the Sinian (N. E., 8. W.) Syssiem of Elevation in Eastern Asia.

The broken line, A, B, indicates the great synclinal axis, and the dotted line, C, D, the main
anticlinal axis.

Section across the Table-Land of Central Asia, from the Plain of Peking to near Kiachta in

Eastern Siberia.

See Chapter VIII.

The heights in the northern and southern thirds of the profile arc from the measurements of Messrs.
Fuss and V. Bunge ; those of the central third, being off from their route, are merely approxi-
mated.

(157)

Plate 7

E. of Paris. 70

E. of Ferro. 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 100 170 180 170 160

PLATE 8.

See Chapter IX.
Geological Boute- Sketch. Southern TessOi

The geographical basis of this map is taken mainly from an unpublished Japanese survey of Yesso,
in the Imperial Archives of the vice-royalty of Yesso.

Profile of the West Coast.
Section from the Japan Sea to Volcano Bay.

(159)

Plate 8

MV5'.<?»«^

. Wahculaszii.
(Large Cone)

SMwuTciibi

AI Alluvial and Beach. V.A. Volcanic Ashes. G. River Gravels. K.T. Recent Terraces. L. Lava. T.C. Tufa Conglomerate. P.T. Pumice Tufa. 'Jt Coa/.

Ar Metanwrphic Argillite. Q. Quartzitc. SI. Cg. C/a// /Sfotes «)*(/ Conglomerate. C.G. Conglomerate aiul Granulite

A.P. Aphanilic Rock. Gr. Granitic and Syenite Series.

PLATE 9.

See Appendix No. 1.
Fossil Plants from the Chinese Coal-bearing Books.

EXPLANATION OP THE FIGURES.

PAGE.

Figure 1. Sphenopteris orientalis . 122

"la. " " 122

2. Podozamites Emmonsii 121

3 Pterozamites Sinensis . . . . . . . . . . . .120

" 4. Taxites spatulatus ............ 123

" 5. Hymenophyllites tenellus 122

" 6. Pecopteris Whitbiensis . . . .122

7. Podozamites lanceolatus 121

21 August, 1866. , , ( 161 )

Plate 9

rOSSIL PLANTS FKOM THE CHINESE COAL-BEARING ROCKS.

>v\ ^^ ' 1 -■

, -^li- - .

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Wif^'

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■.'^>'

'•v~<^.r

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